Complete information about the person

Biography

Worked at FIAN, Institute of Molecular Biology, Biophysics, General Genetics, Developmental Biology, Human Institute.

Since 1990, Leading Researcher of the Bioacoustics Laboratory of the Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences named after V.I. A.N. Severtsov.

Evolutionary Gender Theory

The first publication of Vigen Artavazdovich Geodakian, devoted to the problem of gender, appeared in 1965 in the popular science journal Science and Life. Since then, more than 150 works have been published on the theory of sex and related issues - life expectancy, differentiation of the brain and hands, sex chromosomes, regulation mechanisms in plants and animals, heart defects and other diseases and even culture. The theory has been repeatedly written on the pages of periodicals. V. A. Geodakian gave presentations at many national and international congresses, conferences and symposia, he gave hundreds of lectures. Two conferences were devoted exclusively to theory (St. Petersburg, Russia, 1990, 1992). The theory has already been included in textbooks (V. Vasilchenko, 1986, 2005; A.A. Tkachenko et al. 2001; N. Ikonnikova, 1999) and is included in the teaching programs of a number of Russian (Phystech, MEPhI, RGGU) and foreign (Tel Aviv university) universities and institutes.

Scientific interests

• theoretical evolutionary biology
• genetics
• neurobiology
• systems theory, information, etc.

Publications

• Geodakyan V.A. The role of sexes in the transmission and transformation of genetic information. Probl. transfer of information. 1965a, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 105-112.
• Geodakyan V.A.On the existence of feedback regulating the sex ratio. In the book: Problems of Cybernetics. Moscow: Fizmatgiz, 1965b, issue. 13, p. 187-194.
• Geodakyan V.A., Kosobutskiy V.I. Regulation of the sex ratio by a feedback mechanism. DAN SSSR, 1967, v. 173, no. 4, p. 938-941.
• Geodakyan V.A., Kosobutsky V.I., Bileva D.S. Regulation of the sex ratio by negative feedback. Genetics, I967, no. 9, p. 15Z – 163.
• Differentiation for permanent and working memory in genetic systems. Geodakyan V. A., Materials of the conference "Structural levels of biosystems" 1967.
• Geodakyan V.A., Smirnov N.N. Sexual dimorphism and evolution of lower crustaceans. In Sat: Problems of Evolution. (N.N. Vorontsov ed.). Novosibirsk, Nauka, 1968, vol. 1, p. 30–36.
• Geodakyan V. A., Kosobutskiy V. I. The nature of the feedback regulating sex. Genetics, 1969, v. 5, no. 6, p. 119-126.
• Organization of systems of living and non-living. Geodakyan V.A.In collection: System research, M., Nauka, 1970, p. 49-62.
• Congenital heart defects and gender. Geodakyan V.A., Sherman A.L. Experimental surgery and anesthesiology. 1970, no. 2, p. 18-23.
• Geodakyan V.A. System theory and special sciences. In the book: Materials on the history and development prospects of the systems approach and general systems theory. M., Nauka, 1971, p. 17.
• Geodakyan V.A. Cybernetics and Development. Ontogenesis, 1971, vol. 2, no. 6, p. 653-654.
• On the differentiation of systems into two coupled subsystems. Geodakyan V.A. In the book: Problems of Biocybernetics. Management and information processes in wildlife. M., Nauka, 1971, p. 26.
• The connection of congenital malformations with sex. Geodakyan V.A., Sherman A.L. Zhypn. total biology, 1971, v. 32, no. 4, p. 417-424.
• Congenital anomalies of the heart. Geodakyan V.A., Sherman A.L. In the book: Problems of Biocybernetics. Management and information processes in wildlife. M., Nauka, 1971, p. 196-198.
• On the structure of self-reproducing systems. Geodakyan V.A. In collection: Development of the concept of structural levels in biology. M., Science. 1972a. from. 371-379.
• On the structure of evolving systems. Geodakyan V.A. In the book: Problems of Cybernetics. M., Nauka, 1972b, no. 25, p. 81-91.
• Differential mortality of sexes and reaction rate. Geodakyan V.A. Biol. zhurn. Armenia, 1973, vol. 26, no. 6, p. 3-11.
• Differential mortality and the rate of reaction of males and females. Geodakyan V.A. Zhurn. total biology, 1974, vol. 35, no. 3, p. 376-385.
• The concept of information and living systems. Geodakyan V.A. Zhurn. total biology, 1975, vol. 36, no. 3, p. 336-347.
• Geodakyan V.A.Ethological sexual dimorphism. In the book: Group behavior of animals. M., Science, 1976, p. 64-67.
• The amount of pollen as a regulator of the evolutionary plasticity of cross-pollinated plants. Geodakyan V.A. DAN SSSR, 1977a. t. 234, No. 6. p. 1460-1463. English Translation
• Geodakyan V.A.Evolutionary logic of gender differentiation. In the book: Mathematical methods in biology. K., 1977b, p. 84-106.
• Geodakyan V.A. Evolutionary specialization of sexes according to the tendencies of stabilizing and leading selection. 3rd Congress of the All-Union Council. society of geneticists and breeders them. N.I. Vavilov. Abstracts. Dokl., L., 1977b, II (I), p. 46-47.
• Geodakyan V. A. The amount of pollen as a transmitter of ecological information and a regulator of the evolutionary plasticity of plants. Zhypn. total biology. 1978, vol. 39, no. 5, p. 743-753.
• Geodakyan V. A. The amount of pollen as a regulator of the evolutionary plasticity of cross-pollinated plants. In collection: XIV International Genetic Congress. Breakout sessions. Abstracts. Dokl., Part II, M., Nauka. 1978, p. 49.
• Ethological features associated with gender. Geodakyan V. A. II Congress of the All-Union Theriological Island. Abstracts. Dokl., M., Nauka, 1978, p. 215-216.
• Geodakyan V.A.On the possibility of the existence of adaptive selection of spermatozoa. III All-Union Conf. on biological and medical cybernetics. Abstracts. report M. - Sukhumi, 1978, p. 244-247.
• On the existence of a “paternal effect” in the inheritance of evolutionary traits. Geodakyan V.A. Dokl. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1979, t. 248, No. 1, p. 230-234.
• Brain asymmetry and gender. Geodakyan V.A.Mater. II All-Union Simp. "Anthropogenetics, anthropology and sport", Vinnitsa, November 18-20, 1980, vol. 2, p. 331-332.
• Sexual dimorphism and “paternal effect”. Geodakyan V.A. Zhurn. total biology, 1981a, vol. 42, no. 5, p. 657-668.
• Geodakyan V.A.Evolutionary interpretation of reciprocal effects. 4th Congress of the All-Union Council. society of geneticists and breeders them. N.I. Vavilov. Abstracts. Dokl., Chisinau, Shtiinitsa 1981b, Part I, p. 57-58.
• Sexual dimorphism and evolution of the duration of ontogenesis and its stages. Geodakyan V.A. DAN SSSR, 1982a, t. 263, no. 6, p. 1475-1480.
• Geodakyan V.A.Further development of the genetic-ecological theory of sex differentiation. In: Mathematical Methods in Biology, Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1982b, p. 46-60.
• Geodakyan V.A. Bergman and Allen's Rules in the Light of the New Concept of Sex. Mammals of the USSR. Abstracts. Sh Vses. congress of the theriological society. M., 1982c, p. 172.
• Ontogenetic rule of sexual dimorphism. Geodakyan V.A. DAN SSSR, 1983a, t. 269, no. 2, p. 477-481.
• Evolutionary logic of sex differentiation and longevity. Geodakyan V. A. Priroda, 1983b, No. 1, p. 70-80.
• Geodakyan V.A. Sexual dimorphism in the picture of human aging and mortality. In the book: Problems of the biology of aging, M., Nauka, 1983c, p. 103-110.
• Systems approach and patterns in biology. Geodakyan V.A. In the book: System Research. M., Nauka, 1984a, p. 329-338.
• Geodakyan V.A. Genetic and ecological interpretation of brain lateralization and sex differences. In the collection: Theory, methodology and practice of system research (Abstracts of the All-Union conference section 9), Moscow, 1984b, p. 21-24.
• On some patterns and phenomena associated with sex. Geodakian V.A.In collection: Probabilistic methods in biology, Kiev, Institute of mathematics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, 1985, p. 19–41.
• Is there negative feedback on gender determination? Geodakyan V. A., Geodakian S. V. Journal of General Biology, 1985, vol. 46, no. 2, p. 201-216.
• About theoretical biology. Geodakyan V.A. In collection: Methodological aspects of evolutionary doctrine. Kiev., Naukova Dumka, 1986, p. 73-86.
• Sexual dimorphism. Geodakyan V.A. Biol. zhurn. Armenia. 1986, vol. 39, no. 10, p. 823-834.
• Systemic evolutionary interpretation of brain asymmetry. Geodakyan V.A. In the book: System Research. M., Nauka, 1986, p. 355-376.
• Geodakyan V.A., Gender differentiation and environmental stress. In the book: Mathematical modeling in the problems of rational nature management. Rostov-Don, 1986, p. 88.
• Geodakyan S.V., Geodakian V.A. Gametes. from. 75; Floor. p. 239–241; The reproductive system. from. 242-244; Reproduction. from. 253-255; Alternation of generations. from. 326-327. In the book: Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Biologist. M., Pedagogy, 1986, 352 p.
• Ontogenetic and teratological rules of sexual dimorphism. Geodakyan V.A.V Congress of VOGIS, Abstracts, vol. I, M., 1987, p. 56.
• Evolutionary logic of sex differentiation in phylogeny and ontogeny. Geodakyan V.A. dis. doct. biol. sciences. M., 1987.
• Negative feedback regulating sexual dimorphism and gender dispersion. Geodakyan V.A. Towards a New Synthesis in Evolut. Biol. Proc. Intern. Symp. Praha. 1987. Czech. Ac. Sci. p. 171-173. translation from English.
• The theory of gender differentiation in human problems. Geodakyan V.A.Human in the system of sciences. M., Nauka, 1989, p. 171-189.
• Pansexualization and anthropogenesis. Geodakyan V.A. 3rd school-seminar on genetics and animal breeding. 1989, Novosibirsk, p. 23.
• Evolutionary theory of sex. Geodakyan V.A.Nature. 1991, No. 8. p. 60-69. English Translation
• Evolutionary logic of functional asymmetry of the brain. Geodakyan V.A. Dokl. AN. 1992, v. 324, no. 6, p. 1327-1331.
• Asynchronous asymmetry. Geodakyan V.A. Zhurn. higher. nerve. activities. 1993, vol. 43, no. 3, p. 543-561.
• Man and woman. Evolutionary biological purpose. Geodakyan V.A. Int. Conf .: Woman and freedom. Ways of choice in the world of tradition and change. Moscow, June 1-4, 1994, p. 8-17.
• Sex chromosomes: what are they for? (New concept). Geodakyan V.A. Dokl. AN. 1996, vol. 346, p. 565-569.
• On the evolutionary myopia of ecological concepts (From ecological religion to ecological science). Geodakyan V.A. Report at the International Conference: Philosophy of Environmental Education. (Moscow, January 16-18, 1996).
• Ecology, evolution, gender, left-handedness. Geodakyan V.A. 1st Russian Conference on Environmental Psychology. December 1996
• New concept of left-handedness. Geodakyan V.A., Geodakyan K.V. Dokl. RAS. 1997, vol. 356, no. 6, p. 838-842. English Translation
• Evolution of asymmetry, sexuality and culture (what is culture from the point of view of theoretical biology). Geodakyan V.A. Tr. Int. Symp .: Human-Culture Interaction: Information-Theoretic Approach. Information worldview and aesthetics. 1998, p. 116-143.
• The evolutionary role of sex chromosomes (new concept). Geodakyan V.A.Genetics. 1998, v. 34, no. 8, p. 1171-1184.
• Evolutionary chromosomes and evolutionary sexual dimorphism. Geodakyan VA Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, Biological Series, 2000, No. 2, p. 133-148.
• Homo sapiens on the way to asymmetrization (Theory of asynchronous evolution of hemispheres and cis-trans interpretation of left-handedness). Geodakyan V.A. Anthropology on the Threshold of the III Millennium. Moscow 2003, v. 1, p. 170-201.
• Isomorphism: Asynchronous gender - Asynchronous asymmetry. Geodakyan V.A. Materials of the International Readings dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Corresponding Member. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, acad. Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR E.A. Asratyan. May 30, 2003.
• Convergent evolution of phenotype, asymmetry and sexuality to culture. Geodakyan V.A. Sexology and sexopathology. 2003. No. 6. p. 2-8. No. 7. p. 2-6. No. 8. p. 2-7.
• Terrorism - the problem of cis psychology of men (left-handers) Geodakyan VA 3rd Russian conference on environmental psychology. September 15-17, 2003, p. 24-27. I Ecopsychology: methodology, theory and experiment.
• Evolutionary biology at a "synchronous impasse". Geodakyan V.A. XVIII Lyubishchev Readings. Modern problems of evolution. Ulyanovsk, 2004.
• Evolutionary theories of asymmetrization of organisms, brain and body Geodakyan V.A. Advances in physiological sciences. 2005. T. 36. No. 1. p. 24-53.
• Hormonal gender. Geodakyan V.A. XIX Lyubishchev Readings. "Contemporary Problems of Evolution". Ulyanovsk, April 5-7, 2005.
• The evolutionary role of cancer. A non-entropic concept. Geodakyan V.A. Materials of the International Conference "Genetics in Russia and the World" dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Institute of General Genetics named after N.I. Vavilov RAS June 28 - July 2, 2006 Moscow P. 45 (242).
• The systemic roots of human and social evolution: the role of sex hormones. Geodakyan V.A. Int. Scientific Conf. "Information culture of society and individuals in the XXI century." Krasnodar-September 20-23, 2006, p. 75-80.
• Why are early and late children different? Geodakyan V.A. Int. conf. "Information and communication sciences in a changing Russia" Krasnodar, 2007, p. 150-153.
• Binary-conjugated differentiation, information, culture. Geodakyan V.A. "Information, time, creativity" Abstracts. Dokl. Int. Conf. "New Methods in the Study of Artistic Creativity" and Int. Simp. "Informational approach to the study of culture and art" ed. V. M. Petrov, A. V. Haruto, Moscow, 2007, p. 195-204.
• The evolutionary role of the asymmetrization of organisms, brain and body (Model and rule of the right hand). Geodakyan V.A. XX Congress physiologist. society to them. I.P. Pavlova. Symposium: "Functional interhemispheric asymmetry". Abstracts of reports. June 4-8, 2007 Moscow. P. 28.
• Entropy and information in natural science and culture. Geodakyan V.A. In collection: "Theory of information and art history", 2008. Vol. Institute of Art Studies under the auspices of Int. Acad. Informatics.

The quantitative ratio of sexes, psychological and social differences between the sexes, etc. The theory was proposed in 1965 by Doctor of Biological Sciences (geneticist) Vigen Geodakyan.

As V. Geodokyan notes, with the transition of man from predominantly biological to predominantly social evolution, the rates of development have sharply increased. But having received an unprecedented opportunity to change the environment, a person is forced to change himself. Thus, a system with feedback between man and the environment arises, which accelerates evolution. The application of the evolutionary theory of sex, according to its author, should be fruitful in the comprehensive study of a person, first of all, in solving social problems (Geodakyan, 1994).

Belonging to one species of Homo sapiens determines the unity of the male and female within the biological world. However, the presence of reproductive anatomophysiological differences between men and women gives biodeterminists reason to say that each sex has its own biogram, acts as a carrier of a specific genetic code, and therefore has its own biological role, which determines a number of social ones.

Change and conservation are the main opposite parameters of the idea of \u200b\u200bevolution. Both the environment and the person himself evolve. However, the environment is always larger than individual biological systems. Therefore, it is the changes in the surrounding world that determine and dictate human development. If destructive information (epidemics, cold, heat, predators) comes from the environment, the system must keep the informational distance from the environment in order to maintain its own stability and stability. But the world around us also acts as a source of useful information that guides a person, indicates how he needs to change in order to survive and satisfy his own needs. In this case, the system must be in close proximity to the environment.

According to V. Geodakian's evolutionary theory of sex, the division into male and female sex, namely the conservative and operational components of the human biological system, is a solution to the conflict of simultaneous changes and preservation of the necessary information. The scientist notes that if we single out two streams of information: generative (transmission of genetic information from generation to generation, from the past to the future) and ecological (transmission of information from the environment, from the present to the future), then one can easily see that the two sexes participate in different ways. in them. In the process of the evolution of sex at different stages and levels of organization, a number of mechanisms appeared that consistently ensured a closer connection between the female sex and the generative (conservative) flow, and the male sex with the ecological (operational) one. Thus, the male sex, compared with the female, has a high mutation frequency, less additivity of inheritance of parental traits, a narrow reaction rate, higher aggressiveness and curiosity, more active search start, risky behavior and other qualities that "bring them closer to the environment." All of these features purposefully bring the male sex to the evolutionary loophole and provide him with the primary receipt of environmental information. In addition, long periods of pregnancy, high mortality during childbirth, feeding and caring for offspring in women actually increase the effective concentration of males in society, turn the male sex into "excess", therefore, "cheap", "experimental", and the female - into scarce and more valuable.

As a result, the law of natural selection takes on different accents. He operates mainly at the expense of the male, since he is more risky active, "redundant" and "cheap". Thus, the population of men is decreasing, however, the tendency to allow them to fully reproduce the next generations and transmit them the necessary genetic information, which is the state of the environment at the moment. As a result, the genetic information transmitted by the generation through the female line is representative in nature, since it is based on the conservative component of the evolutionary process, and on the male line, it is selective, since it is largely based on the law of natural selection.

In a similar way, biodeterminists explain the emergence of psychological differences between men and women. A broader, adaptive, plastic, norm of reaction to environmental changes allows women to get out of uncomfortable zones due to conformity, the ability to learn, reeducation, that is, adaptability. For men, a narrower zone of reaction to environmental changes makes this path impossible. Only resourcefulness, ingenuity, risk-taking and decisiveness can ensure their survival in uncomfortable conditions. In other words, a woman adapts to the situation to a greater extent, and a man gets out of it, finding a solution - discomfort stimulates development.

That is why men are more successful in solving new, extraordinary tasks that require an active search. Women are improving this decision. If we are talking about the development of new types of activity, language or writing, then here we can distinguish two phases: 1) search and development; 2) consolidation and improvement. The first phase, according to the theory, is more typical for men, and the second for women.

Innovation in any business as a result of biological and social evolution belongs to the man. The male half of humanity was the first to master all professions and sports. Even knitting, in which now the monopoly of women is undeniable, was invented by men (Italy, XIII century). The role of the avant-garde belongs to men and in the propensity to some diseases, and to most social vices. It is the male sex that is more often exposed to "new" diseases, or, as they are called, diseases of the century, civilization, urbanization - atherosclerosis, cancer, schizophrenia, AIDS, as well as social vices - alcoholism, smoking, drug addiction, gambling, crime, etc. etc.

Consequently, it is precisely the dual nature of evolution: simultaneous changes and preservation of information necessary for development provoke sexual dimorphism.

In an aggressive, both natural and social environment, the process is absent, since in any extreme conditions - earthquakes, famine, war, disease, resettlement, repressive traditions and customs - the differences between the sexes become more noticeable. Men become more masculine and women more feminine. In this case, each sex in a single evolutionary process implements its own genetic program: conservative (female) and operational (male). The mission of men is to receive information from the environment, check it on the next generations and pay for it with their own health and life (Geodakyan, 1990).

In a stable environment, when there is no need for constant dramatic changes, conservative tendencies are leading. In this case, the need for a male sex on the part of society is less, which means that sexual dimorphism is manifested to a lesser extent. Physical strength, endurance, activity, risky behavior, curiosity, which are so necessary in uncomfortable conditions, lose their relevance and significance in a stable natural and social environment. It is on this basis, taking into account biodeterminist theories, that such a phenomenon as the unification of sexes appears.

According to biodeterminists / -oks, the male sex acts as a buffer, protective zone around the female nucleus. However, if there is no threat from the environment, then the need for protection disappears by itself. In this case, there is no benefit from the male sex to humanity as a biological species. From the standpoint, the process of unification of the sexes is nothing more than the simultaneous feminization of men, who are deprived of an active evolutionary position in comfortable conditions, and the masculinization of women, who are gradually studying and mastering new spheres of life opened by men (Shevchenko, 2011).

Literature:

Geodakyan, V.A. (June 1–4, 1994). Man and woman. Evolutionary biological purpose. Int. conf .: Woman and freedom. Choices in the world of tradition and change(pp. 8-17). Moscow.

Geodakyan, V.A. (1990). Evolutionary theory of sex. Nature, 8 , 60–69.

Shevchenko, Z.V. (May 26-27, 2011). The problem of unification of articles: biological and social warehouse process. Materials of the 1st All-Ukrainian Science and Practice Conference(pp. 93-101). Ostrog: Vidavnitstvo National University "Ostrozka Academy".

Why are there men and women? Why don't we be, like amoeba, asexual? Or, like earthworms, hermaphrodites? Why are there two sexes, not three? Scientists find it difficult to answer this question. Everyone is at a loss - except one. Doctor of Biological Sciences, leading researcher at the Institute of General Problems of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Vigen Artavazdovich Geodakyan has been developing a theory for forty years, designed to explain the meaning of the division of living things into two sexes. And everyone who had to get acquainted with this theory opened their mouths in surprise.

Guinea pigs

The whole theory of Geodakyan can be expressed in one phrase - men are nature's guinea pigs. As you know, life on earth develops from amoeba to dinosaurs, and from dinosaurs to humans, and this happens because living beings acquire new signs and properties in the process of evolution. But changes in living organisms can be not only beneficial, but also harmful. Another careless mutation can generally lead to the extinction of a biological species. For this, most biological creatures will be divided into men and women, and all the risk associated with the change is taken by men, who can be safely called the pioneers of evolution. After all, if the mutation turns out to be harmful, and most of the men die, this will not affect the fate of the species, not numerous surviving men can, using numerous women, easily restore their numbers. Thus, men try new mutations on themselves for some time, and if they survive, they pass on a new trait to women.

According to the still not rejected theory of Darwin, the evolution of living things occurs as a result of natural selection. Let's say a global cooling has come on the earth, and all animals would be good to get thick fur. The selection acts roughly - everyone who lacks fur perishes, leaving the most woolly ones, which give rise to a new generation of frost-resistant animals. Nature acts like a breeder: she selects the sheep with the thickest wool and makes them the founder of new, thickest wool breeds. The trouble, however, is that the more “careful” the selection is, the fewer individuals remain alive. If after the first frost there are too few sheep left, then, even if they are very woolly, they simply will not be able to restore the number of their species. But if too many remain alive, then new signs - ("thicker coat") will not appear clearly enough. That is, any biological species is between two dangers - it is necessary to maintain its numbers and ensure a high rate of evolution.

And here the division into two sexes comes to the aid of the sheep, as well as all other living beings. Females are responsible for maintaining the numbers of their species. Men, on the other hand, are constantly dying, but they transmit new traits to their offspring, which have resulted from the most rigorous selection.

Male and female talents

Of course, the question arises - how do women manage to survive in changing conditions, say, among the same cold weather? But each gender has its own talent. Men have a talent to change genetically, to acquire new mutations that they pass on to their children. Women themselves adapt much more easily to new conditions, but their genes remain unchanged. Women survive more easily in both cold and heat, but that is why natural selection does not affect them, and they have nothing to pass on to their offspring. As Vigen Artavazdovich says, if a man is badly fed from childhood, he will die, if a woman is badly fed, she will grow up shorter. When cold weather sets in, a sheep, unlike a ram, easily becomes overgrown with wool itself, but this trait is not transmitted to offspring. That is why in maintaining a dairy breed of cattle, dairy bulls - as funny as it sounds - play a much larger role than dairy cows.

Putting the principle of coupled subsystems as the basis of his theory, Geodakian noted that adaptive systems evolving in a driving environment significantly increase their overall stability, provided they differentiate into two coupled subsystems, with conservative and operational specialization, which belong to individuals, respectively, female and male. How does this happen?

Initially, the female organism has a wider reaction rate than the male. So, if a man in conflict behavior, for example, usually behaves in an explosive manner, then it will hardly be possible to make him tolerant and peaceful. A woman can combine several strategies in her behavior, using them flexibly depending on the situation. Thanks to this, the adaptive abilities of females are much higher, and their learning ability is better. (Studies in educational psychology note that boys tend to have a higher initial level of ability, but they plateau more quickly during learning, while girls, starting from lower performance, pick up the pace and overtake boys.) If we come to the school class and look at the performance of children, it turns out that girls (like boys) are equally divided into excellent students, poor students and mediocre students. However, if we put the question differently: who is the most notorious poor student and bully, who is the most talented student? - it turns out that these groups are filled, as a rule, with boys. That is, the male subsample has a more specialized behavior, which generally interferes with adaptation at the individual level. All extremes are more prominent in men, but women are more trainable.

The next question that needs to be resolved is: why do men for a long time, sometimes for many generations, keep new signs "in themselves", and only then pass them on to women? Geodakyan solves this problem at the genetic level. As it is known from genetics, in the cells of men there are so-called "game-chromosomes" - in fact, it is the presence of these chromosomes that distinguishes men from women. According to Geodakian's theory, new genes appear at one end of the y-chromosome, and they can only pass to women from the other end. With each next generation, the gene moves from the beginning of the chromosome to the end. But until he reaches the opposite end, the new trait is transmitted only from father to son, but never to daughter. And while this is happening, the new sign is passing the test of time.

The recent decoding of the human genome has brought further confirmation of Geodakian's theory. It turned out that most of the mutations in human genes actually occur "in the game-chromosomes." That is, male chromosomes are truly an experimental laboratory where new genes are produced.

Men as a compass of evolution

It follows from Geodakyan's theory that women are evolving with some lag behind men. Amazing proof of this has been found in Israel. In the caves of Mount Carmel, skeletons of ancient people were discovered, and all women are typical Neanderthals, without a chin and with a low forehead, and all men are Cro-Magnons, that is, modern people. Scientists believe that the Cro-Magnon tribe captured Neanderthal women. But Geodakyan grins at this: where did they do with those men, and even more so - their own women?

According to Geodakyan, this is a typical example of how men have already received new signs - a chubby and a high forehead, while women have not yet pulled themselves up after them.

Studying how men differ from women (except for the actual sexual characteristics), one can understand in which direction evolution is going. As you know, in higher animals, males are always larger than females. This means that these creatures gradually increased in size as they evolved. Indeed - the ancestors of the elephant were no larger than a pig, and the ancestors of a horse were slightly larger than a cat. But according to Geodakyan's theory, the males were the first to increase their size, and the females followed them with some lag. That is why stallions are always larger than mares - and a mare is a little closer to her small, cat-like ancestor.

In insects, the opposite is true - women are much larger than men. What does this mean? That evolution followed the path of decreasing the size of these creatures. In ancient times, dragonflies with a meter-long wingspan lived on earth, but their "husbands" gradually dwindled, and after their husbands - but with a lag, reluctantly parting with luxurious sizes - women kept up.

But evolution continues today. For example, data from atropometric measurements indicate that, as a rule, in men, the ring finger is longer than the index finger, and in women, on the contrary, it is usually longer than the index finger. According to Geodakian's theory, this means that evolution is going according to the "male" version, and that in centuries all people, without exception, will have longer fingers with a ring finger.

However, - I ask Vigen Artavazdovich, - civilization has given everyone food and shelter, today people do not die from the cold, and, in any case, they do not grow wool to fight the weather. Has human evolution stopped?

Why? - Geodakian is sincerely surprised. - Just before a man died from a meeting with a tiger, but today he is being worked on at the Academic Council or the Party Committee - and a heart attack.

Like this. According to Geodakian's theory, party committees played the role of an instrument of natural selection.

Men to the right, women to the left

But Geodakyan goes even further. He believes that the division of living beings into two sexes is only a partial example of the division of everything that exists in living nature into left and right halves. All innovations appear on the right. In fish, the heart is located strictly in the middle, but when the fish came out on land and instead of gills, the first lung appeared, the heart crawled to the left to make way. Relatively speaking, the right half in any living body is “male”, and the left half is “female”. New evolutionary traits go from right to left, and from men to women. Any innovation in the human body appears from the right side in men, and ends its way on the left side in women. For example, in the course of evolution, the eyes gradually crawled from the sides (like in horses) to the face. But if you measure it accurately, you can see that on average men have eyes a little closer to the nose than women. Women often have a "hair-eyed" that amazed oriental poets - wide-set eyes, but from the point of view of evolution, this is a relict sign. In this case, the right eye is always slightly closer to the nose than the left, as well as the right ear is usually slightly higher than the left.

When a person begins to artificially breed dogs with long ears, then the ears grow back in males faster than in females, and the right ears of both of them grow a little faster than the left ones. The longest ear is in the male on the right, the shortest is in the young lady on the left. Moreover, Vigen Artavazdovich even undertakes to derive a mathematical law, according to which the sum of the lengths of the male right and female left ears should be equal to the sum of the lengths of the male left and female right.

People's teeth gradually become smaller. Therefore, if you put a man and a woman about the same height and complexion next to each other, then the smallest teeth will be in the man on the right, and the largest in the women on the left.

However, women should not be offended that they are "lagging behind." After all, changes are not only beneficial. I. as Vigen Geodakyan says, although there is more genius among men than among women, there are also much more complete idiots among them. It is better to remember the funny song that Oleg Yankovsky sings in the film "Trumpet" in the voice of Anatoly Solovyanenko:

Men, I want to remind you

That Adam was a test specimen!

God worked on him to the best of his ability,

At first I gained experience on it.

List of references:

All world literature.

Based on the article by K. Frumkin et al.

Konstantin Frumkin

Why are there men and women? Why don't we be, like amoeba, asexual? Or, like earthworms, hermaphrodites? Why are there two sexes, not three? Scientists find it difficult to answer this question. Everyone is at a loss - except one. Doctor of Biological Sciences, leading researcher at the Institute of General Problems of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Vigen Artavazdovich Geodakyan has been developing the theory for forty years. designed to explain what is the meaning of dividing living beings into two sexes. And everyone who had to get acquainted with this theory opened their mouths in surprise.

Guinea pigs

The whole theory of Geodakyan can be expressed in one phrase - men are nature's guinea pigs. As you know, life on earth develops from amoeba to dinosaurs, and from dinosaurs to humans, and this happens because living beings acquire new signs and properties in the process of evolution. But changes in living organisms can be not only beneficial, but also harmful. Another careless mutation can generally lead to the extinction of a biological species. For this, most biological creatures will be divided into men and women, and all the risk associated with the change is taken by men, who can be safely called the pioneers of evolution. After all, if the mutation turns out to be harmful, and most of the men die, this will not affect the fate of the species, not the numerous surviving men can, using numerous women, easily restore their numbers. Thus, for a while, men try new mutations on themselves, and if they survive, they pass on a new trait to women.

According to the still not rejected theory of Darwin, the evolution of living things occurs as a result of natural selection. Let's say a global cold snap has come on the earth, and all animals would be good to get thick fur. The selection acts roughly - everyone who lacks fur perishes, leaving the most woolly ones, which give rise to a new generation of frost-resistant animals. Nature acts like a breeder: she selects the sheep with the thickest wool and makes them the founder of new, thickest wool breeds. The trouble, however, is that the "more thoroughly" the selection takes place, the fewer individuals remain alive. If after the first frost there are too few sheep left, then, even if they are very woolly, they simply will not be able to restore the number of their species. But if too many remain alive, then new signs - ("thicker coat") will not appear clearly enough. That is, any biological species is between two dangers - it is necessary to maintain its numbers and ensure a high rate of evolution.

And here the division into two sexes comes to the aid of the sheep, as well as all other living beings. Females are responsible for maintaining the size of their species. Men, on the other hand, are constantly dying, but they transmit new traits to the offspring, which have turned out as a result of the most stringent selection.

Male and female talents

Of course, the question arises - how do women manage to survive in changing conditions, say, among the same cold weather? But each gender has its own talent. Men have a talent to change genetically, to acquire new mutations that they pass on to their children. Women themselves adapt much more easily to new conditions, but their genes remain unchanged. Women survive more easily in both cold and heat, but that is why natural selection does not affect them, and they have nothing to pass on to their offspring. As Vigen Artavazdovich says, if a man is badly fed from childhood, he will die, if a woman is badly fed, she will grow up shorter. When cold weather sets in, a sheep, unlike a ram, easily grows wool itself, but this trait is not transmitted to offspring. That is why in maintaining a dairy breed of cattle, dairy bulls - as funny as it sounds - play a much larger role than dairy cows.

The next question that needs to be resolved is: why do men for a long time, sometimes for many generations, keep new signs "in themselves", and only then pass them on to women? Geodakyan solves this problem at the genetic level. As it is known from genetics, in the cells of men there are so-called "game chromosomes" - in fact, it is the presence of these chromosomes that distinguishes men from women. According to Geodakian's theory, new genes appear at one end of the y-chromosome, and they can only pass to women from the other end. With each subsequent generation, the gene moves from the beginning of the chromosome to the end. But until he reaches the opposite end, the new trait is transmitted only from father to son, but never to daughter. And while this is happening, the new sign is passing the test of time.

The recent decoding of the human genome has brought further confirmation of Geodakian's theory. It turned out that most of the mutations in human genes actually occur "in the game-chromosomes." That is, male chromosomes are truly an experimental laboratory where new genes are produced.

Men as a compass of evolution

It follows from Geodakyan's theory that women are evolving with some lag behind men. Amazing proof of this has been found in Israel. In the caves of Mount Carmel, skeletons of ancient people were discovered, and all women are typical Neanderthals, without a chin and with a low forehead, and all men are Cro-Magnons, that is, modern people. Scientists believe that the Cro-Magnon tribe captured Neanderthal women. But Geodakyan grins at this: where did they do with those men, and even more so - their own women?

According to Geodakyan, this is a typical example of how men have already received new signs - a chubby and a high forehead, while women have not yet pulled themselves up after them.

Studying how men differ from women (except for the actual sexual characteristics), one can understand in which direction evolution is going. As you know, in higher animals, males are always larger than females. This means that these creatures gradually increased in size as they evolved. Indeed - the ancestors of the elephant were no larger than a pig, and the ancestors of a horse were slightly larger than a cat. But according to Geodakyan's theory, the males were the first to increase their size, and the females followed them with some lag. That is why stallions are always larger than mares - and a mare is a little closer to her small, cat-like ancestor.

In insects, the opposite is true - women are much larger than men. What does this mean? That evolution followed the path of decreasing the size of these creatures. In ancient times, dragonflies with a meter-long wingspan lived on earth, but their "husbands" gradually dwindled, and after their husbands - but with a lag, reluctantly parting with luxurious sizes - wives kept up.

But evolution continues today. For example, data from atropometric measurements indicate that, as a rule, in men, the ring finger is longer than the index finger, and in women, on the contrary, it is usually longer than the index finger. According to Geodakyan's theory, this means that evolution is going according to the "male" version, and that through the centuries all people, without exception, will have longer fingers with a ring finger.

However, - I ask Vigen Artavazdovich, - civilization has given everyone food and shelter, today people do not die from the cold, and, in any case, they do not grow wool to fight the weather. Has human evolution stopped?

Why? - Geodakian is sincerely surprised. - Just before a man died from a meeting with a tiger, but today he is being worked on at the Academic Council or the Party Committee - and a heart attack.

Like this. According to Geodakian's theory, party committees played the role of an instrument of natural selection.

Men to the right, women to the left

But Geodakyan goes even further. He believes that the division of living beings into two sexes is only a partial example of the division of everything that exists in living nature into left and right halves. All innovations appear on the right. In fish, the heart is located strictly in the middle, but when the fish came out on land and instead of gills, the first lung appeared, the heart crawled to the left to make way. Relatively speaking, the right half in any living body is “male”, and the left half is “female”. New evolutionary traits go from right to left, and from men to women. Any innovation in the human body appears from the right side in men, and ends its way on the left side in women. For example, in the course of evolution, the eyes gradually crawled from the sides (like in horses) to the face. But if you measure it accurately, you can see that on average men have eyes a little closer to the nose than women. Women often have a "hair-eyed" that amazed oriental poets - wide-set eyes, but from the point of view of evolution, this is a relict sign. In this case, the right eye is always slightly closer to the nose than the left, as well as the right ear is usually slightly higher than the left.

When a person begins to artificially breed dogs with long ears, then the ears grow back in males faster than in females, and the right ears of both of them - a little bit faster than the left ones. The longest ear is in the male on the right, the shortest is in the young lady on the left. Moreover, Vigen Artavazdovich even undertakes to derive a mathematical law, according to which the sum of the lengths of the male right and female left ears should be equal to the sum of the lengths of the male left and female right.

People's teeth gradually become smaller. Therefore, if you put a man and a woman about the same height and build next to each other, then the smallest teeth will be in the man on the right, and the largest in the women on the left.

However, women should not be offended that they are "lagging behind." After all, changes are not only beneficial. I. as Vigen Geodakyan says, although there is more genius among men than among women, there are also much more complete idiots among them. It is better to remember the funny song that Oleg Yankovsky sings in the movie "Trumpet" in the voice of Anatoly Solovyanenko:

Men, I want to remind you

That Adam was a test specimen!

God worked on him to the best of his ability,

The main advantages of sexual reproduction - ensuring genetic diversity, suppressing harmful mutations, preventing closely related interbreeding - are the result of fertilization, and not differentiation into two sexes.

Hermaphrodites also have fertilization, but the combinatorial potential is twice as high as that of dioecious, and the quantitative efficiency of asexual methods is twice as high as that of sexual ones.

In the early 60s, V.A.Geodakian proposed an evolutionary theory of sex: gender differentiation is an economical form of informational contact with the environment, specialization in two main aspects of evolution - conservative and operational. Two sexes - two streams of information.

CONSERVATION AND CHANGE Both the system and the environment evolve, but since the environment is always larger than the system, it dictates the evolution of the system. From the environment comes n degrading information - the system must remain stable, n useful information - the system must be sensitive.

There are two solutions to this problem: n n Be at some optimal distance from the environment Divide into two coupled systems - conservative and operational, conservative move away from the environment, bring operational closer to the environment to obtain new information

Two streams of information: 1) Generative - the transfer of genetic information from generation to generation, from the past to the future (female gender): long periods of feeding and caring for offspring - a conservative mission 2) Environmental - information from the environment, from the present to the future (male gender ): higher mutation frequency, already normal reaction, higher aggressiveness and curiosity, more active search behavior - operational mission

n n In the evolution of sex at different stages and levels of organization, a number of mechanisms appeared that consistently ensured a closer connection between the female sex and the generative (conservative) flow, and the male sex with the ecological (operational) one. Thus, in males, compared to females, the frequency of mutations is higher, the additivity of inheritance of parental traits is less, the reaction rate is already higher, aggressiveness and curiosity are higher, exploratory, risky behavior and other qualities "approaching the environment" are more active.

All of them, purposefully bringing the male sex to the periphery of distribution, provide him with the primary receipt of environmental information. n Another group of features is the huge redundancy of male gametes, their small size and high mobility, high activity and mobility of males, their tendency to polygamy and other ethological and psychological properties. n

Long periods of pregnancy, feeding and caring for offspring in females, in fact, increasing the effective concentration of males, turn the male sex into "excess", therefore, "cheap", and the female sex into a scarce and more valuable one. n This leads to the fact that selection acts mainly due to the removal of males, "redundancy" and "cheapness" allow it to work with large coefficients. n

n n As a result, the number of males in the population decreases, but their great potential allows them to fertilize all females. A small number of males transmit as much information to their offspring as a large number of females, in other words, the channel of communication with offspring is wider in males than in females. This means that the genetic information transmitted through the female line is more representative, and on the male line it is selective, that is, the past diversity of genotypes is more fully preserved in the female line, and in the male line, the average genotype changes more strongly.

nn Any dioecious population is characterized by three main parameters: the ratio of the sexes (the ratio of the number of males to the number of females), the variance of the sexes (the ratio of the values \u200b\u200bof the variance of the trait, or its diversity, in males and females), sexual dimorphism (the ratio of the average values \u200b\u200bof the trait for the male and female genders). Attributing a conservative mission to the female sex and an operational mission to the male, the theory connects these parameters of the population with environmental conditions and the evolutionary plasticity of the species.

TRANSFORMATION OF GENETIC INFORMATION IN ONE GENERATION n n Genotype is a program that in different environments can be implemented into one of a whole spectrum of phenotypes (traits). Therefore, the genotype does not contain a specific value of a trait, but a range of possible values. In ontogeny, one phenotype that is most suitable for a particular environment is realized. Consequently, the genotype sets the range of realizations, the environment "chooses" a point within this range, the width of which is the reaction norm, which characterizes the degree of participation of the environment in the determination.

According to some signs, for example, blood group or eye color, the reaction rate is narrow, so the environment does not actually affect them; n for other - psychological, intellectual abilities - very broad, therefore many associate them only with the influence of the environment, that is, upbringing; n third signs, say height, weight, occupy an intermediate position. n

n Taking into account two sex differences - according to the reaction rate (which is wider in females) and the cross-section of the communication channel (wider in males) - we will consider the transformation of genetic information in one generation, i.e., from zygotes to zygotes, in a stabilizing and driving environment ... Let us assume that the initial distribution of genotypes in the population is the same for male and female zygotes, i.e., there is no sexual dimorphism for the trait under consideration. In order to obtain from the distribution of genotypes of zygotes the distribution of phenotypes (organisms before and after selection), from it, in turn, the distribution of genotypes of eggs and sperm.

The distribution of the next generation zygotes, it is enough to trace the transformation of the two extreme genotypes of zygotes into extreme phenotypes, extreme gametes and again into zygotes. n Other genotypes are intermediate and will remain so in all distributions. n A wider rate of reaction of the female sex allows him, due to modification plasticity, to leave the selection zone, to preserve and pass on to the offspring the entire spectrum of the original genotypes. n

n n n Intensive selection reduces the number of males, but since the formation of zygotes requires an equal number of male and female gametes, males have to fertilize more than one female. The wide cross-section of the male channel allows this. Consequently, in each generation, populations of a wide variety of eggs, carrying information about the past richness of genotypes, merge with sperm of a narrow variety, the genotypes of which contain information only about the most suitable for the current environment. Thus, the next generation receives information about the past from the maternal side, about the present from the paternal side.

n n If paternal genetic information is transferred to sons and daughters stochastically, during fertilization it will completely mix and sexual dimorphism will disappear. But if there are any mechanisms that prevent complete mixing, some of this information will get from fathers only to sons and, therefore, part of sexual dimorphism will remain in zygotes. And such mechanisms exist. Only sons receive information from the genes of the Y-chromosome; genes are manifested in different ways in offspring, depending on whether they are inherited from the father or mother.

FUNCTIONAL ASYMMETRY OF THE BRAIN AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES n n For a long time it was considered a privilege of a person, associating it with speech, right-handedness, self-awareness, it was believed that asymmetry is secondary - a consequence of these unique human features. It has now been established that asymmetry is widespread in placental animals; most researchers also recognize the difference in its severity in men and women. J. Levy believes, for example, that the female brain is similar to the brain of a left-handed man, that is, less asymmetric than that of a right-handed man.

n n n From the standpoint of gender theory, a more asymmetrical brain in males (and in some vertebrate males) means that evolution proceeds from symmetry to asymmetry. Sexual dimorphism in the asymmetry of the brain gives hope to understand and explain the differences in the abilities and inclinations of men and women. It is known that our distant phylogenetic ancestors had lateral eyes (in human embryos of early stages of development, they are located in the same way), the visual fields did not overlap, each eye was connected only with the opposite hemisphere (contralateral connections). In the course of evolution, the eyes moved to the front side, the visual fields overlapped, but for a stereoscopic picture to appear, visual information from both eyes had to be concentrated in one area of \u200b\u200bthe brain.

n n Vision became stereoscopic only after additional ipsilateral fibers, which connected the left eye to the left hemisphere, and the right to the right, appeared. This means that the ipsilateral connections are evolutionarily younger than the contralateral ones, and therefore in men they should be more advanced, that is, there are more ipsilateral fibers in the optic nerve. Since volumetric imagination and spatial-visual abilities are associated with stereoscopy (and the number of ipsivofibers), they should be better developed in men than in women. Indeed, psychologists are well aware that men are far superior to women in their understanding of geometric problems, as well as in reading maps, orienteering, etc.

How did psychological sexual dimorphism arise from the point of view of the theory of sex? There is no fundamental difference in the evolution of morphophysiological and psychological or behavioral traits. n The wide rate of reaction of the female sex provides him with a higher plasticity (adaptability) in ontogenesis than that of the male sex. This also applies to psychological symptoms. n

n n n Selection in the zones of discomfort in males and females goes in different directions: due to the wide reaction rate, the female sex can "get out" from these zones due to education, learning, conformity, that is, in general - adaptability. For males, this path is closed because of the narrow reaction rate; only resourcefulness, ingenuity, ingenuity can ensure his survival in uncomfortable conditions. Women adapt to the situation, men get out of it, finding a new solution, discomfort stimulates the search.

Without such barriers, it is also difficult to explain the dominance of the paternal genotype in offspring from reciprocal crosses, which is known in animal husbandry, for example, the high milk yield of cows transmitted through a bull. n All this allows us to believe that only sex differences in the reaction rate and the cross-section of the communication channel are enough for genotypic sexual dimorphism to appear in the driving environment already in one generation, which will accumulate and grow with the change of generations. n

n n Therefore, men are more willing to take on new, challenging, extraordinary tasks (often performing them in rough form), and women are better at bringing the solution of familiar tasks to perfection. Is this why they excel in activities that can be done with well-honed skills, such as working on an assembly line? If the mastery of speech, writing, any craft is considered in the evolutionary aspect, it is possible to distinguish the phase of search (finding new solutions), development and the phase of consolidation, improvement. The male advantage in the first phase and the female advantage in the second were revealed in special studies.

Examples Among newborn children with an excess of the number of organs that have undergone a reduction in the number (kidneys, ribs, teeth, vertebrae) in the course of evolution, there are more girls, and with their shortage, there are more boys. In “female” heart defects, elements characteristic of the heart of the embryo or human phylogenetic precursors (open foramen ovale, open duct) prevail. “Male” defects are newer, neither in phylogenesis, nor in embryos there are no analogies (stenosis, transposition of great vessels).

HORMONAL REGULATION OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT The system of regulation of the sexual function of the body is subject to a single principle based on the coordination of processes of positive and negative feedbacks between the hypothalamo-pituitary system and peripheral endocrine glands.

Links of hormonal regulation 3 main levels: a) the central level, including the cerebral cortex, subcortical formations, hypothalamic nuclei, pineal gland, adenohypophysis; b) the peripheral level, including the sex glands, adrenal glands and hormones secreted by them and their metabolites; c) the tissue level, which includes specific receptors in target organs, with which sex hormones and their active metabolites interact.

Central level of regulation The main coordinating link in hormonal regulation is the subcortical formations and the hypothalamus, which carries out the relationship between the central nervous system, on the one hand, and the pituitary gland and sex glands, on the other.

Ø Ø A high content of biogenic amines and neuropeptides was found in the nuclei of the hypothalamus, which play the role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the transformation of a nerve impulse into a humoral one. In addition, the hypothalamus contains a large number of sex steroid receptors, which confirms its direct relationship with the sex glands. External impulses, acting through afferent pathways to the cerebral cortex, are summed up in the subcortical formations, where the transformation of the nerve impulse into the humoral one takes place. It is assumed that the main subcortical centers that modulate the activity of the gonads are localized in the structures of the limbic system, amygdala and hippocampus.

Biogenic amines In addition to the stimulating and inhibitory effect of subcortical formations, adrenergic mediators - biogenic amines - play an important role in the transmission of nerve impulses to the humoral at the hypothalamic level. They are currently considered as regulators of the synthesis and secretion of hypothalamic releasing hormones. In the central nervous system, 3 types of fibers are distinguished, containing various monoamines. All of them have a multidirectional effect on the hypothalamus.

Dopaminergic system Ø Ø Ø Ø The relationship between the subcortical nuclei and the hypothalamus is most widely realized through the dopaminergic system. Dopaminergic neurons are localized mainly in the nuclei of the mediobasal hypothalamus. The inhibitory effect of this system on the production and secretion of gonadotropic hormones, mainly LH? The stimulatory role of dopamine in LH secretion, especially in the regulation of its ovulatory release? Is dopamine exposure mediated by estrogen levels? There is evidence of the existence of two types of dopaminergic receptors: stimulating and inhibiting LH production. The activation of receptors of one kind or another depends on the level of sex steroids.

Serotonergic system n n n n The serotonergic system connects the hypothalamus with the medulla and medulla oblongata and the limbic system. Serotonergic fibers enter the median eminence and end in its capillaries. Serotonin inhibits the gonadotropin-regulating function of the hypothalamus at the level of the arcuate nuclei. Its indirect influence through the pineal gland is not excluded.

Neurotransmitters In addition to biogenic amines, opioid peptides, mainly enkephalins, can act as neurotransmitters that regulate the gonadotropin-regulating function of the hypothalamus. ... n They are found in all parts of the central nervous system. n Opioids alter the content of biogenic amines in the hypothalamus, competing with them for receptor sites. n Opioids have an inhibitory effect on the gonadotropic function of the hypothalamus. n

Neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters n n The role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the CNS can be played by various neuropeptides found in large quantities in various parts of the CNS. These include neurotensin, histamine, substance P, cholecystokinin, vasoactive intestinal peptide. These substances have a predominantly inhibitory effect on the production of luliberin. The synthesis of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GT-RH) stimulates prostaglandins from group E and P 2

The role of the hypothalamus n n n The hypothalamus regulates the sexual (gonadotropic) function through the synthesis and secretion of HT-RG. There is one hypothalamic factor that regulates the production of both LH and follicle-stimulating (FSH) hormone. The prevailing sensitivity of one of them (LH) to HT-RG is based on the different sensitivity of the cells of the adenohypophysis. The short-term action of GT-RH stimulates the release of LH. For the secretion of FSH, long-term exposure to HT-RH in combination with sex steroids is necessary.

Sex steroids have a marked effect on the function of the hypothalamus at all stages of sexual development. n Sex steroids (mainly estrogens) have a modulating role in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal interaction. n Sex steroids change the sensitivity of the tonic center to biogenic amines. n As a result, sex steroids rhythmically change the level of HT-RH secretion by hypothalamic neurons. n

Pituitary gland Three triple hormones of the pituitary gland are directly involved in the regulation of the reproductive system: LH, FSH and prolactin. n There is no doubt that other pituitary hormones are thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH), somatotropic hormones (STH). n Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is also involved in the regulation of sexual function n

1. Puberty (puberty) represents the transition from juvenile to adulthood. 2. At this time, secondary sexual characteristics appear and mature, rapid growth occurs, fertility is achieved and profound psychological changes occur. 3. These changes are associated with the reactivation of the axis of the hypothalamus - pituitary gonadotropins - stimulation of the gonads - increased secretion of sex steroids - the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics (point No. 2). 4. The age of puberty is influenced by ethnic and geographic factors, economic and living conditions, and the presence of obesity.

5. Delayed puberty is a characteristic feature of chronic disease and malnutrition. 6. Intense physical activity (more often in girls) can postpone the onset or suspend puberty, especially if it is accompanied by weight loss. 7. The maturation of the external genital organs in boys is closely correlated with pubic hair growth, since both of these signs are under the control of androgens. 8. The first sign is the pubertal enlargement of the testicles - the growth of their longitudinal size over 2.5 cm. The increase in their size correlates with the stages of puberty.

9. Puberty begins between 9 and 14 years in 98.8% of boys (on average 11.6 years) and for the full development of secondary sexual characteristics it takes 3.5 years (ranges from 2 to 4.5 years). 10. The larynx, cricoid articulation and muscles of the larynx increase, the voice breaks at about 13, 5 years old, and by the age of 15, a voice characteristic of adult men is formed. 11. Facial hair in boys appears in the corners of the upper lip and upper part of the cheeks, then over the middle part of the lower lip, along the sides and lower edge of the chin. The beginning of facial hair growth coincides with the 3rd stage of pubic hair growth, and completely by the 5th stage of sex maturation. organs.

12. Axillary hair growth in boys - from the age of 14. 13. During puberty, boys grow by an average of 28 cm, their shoulders become wider, their muscles become wider, and internal organs grow. 14. Oygarh (first emissions) at the age of 14-15. 15. The nervous system regulates 2 main aspects of puberty: the timing and mechanisms of the transition from prepubertal, or sexually infantile, state to full puberty. 16. There is still no unambiguous understanding of what triggers puberty - the activation of the LRH pulse generator: the natural development of early hormonal changes, or a certain metabolic signal associated with body composition.

The two most important functions of the testicles - spermatogenic and steroidogenic - ensure the maintenance of reproductive capacity and the male phenotype of the body. Hormonal regulation of pubertal growth acceleration is due to the combined action of testosterone and growth hormone: testosterone affects the growth of the spine. The concentration of somatomedin in plasma during puberty increases to a maximum, probably due to sex steroids and is mediated by an increase in the secretion of growth hormone. The degree of maturation of the skeletal system, determined by X-ray, is an indicator of physiological maturation.

... nnnnn 1 - Epiphyses of the terminal phalanges 2 - Epiphyses of the middle phalanges 3 - Epiphyses of the main phalanges 4 - Epiphyses of the I metacarpal bone 5 - Epiphyses of the II, IV, V metacarpals 6 - Capitate bone 7 - Anticulate bone 8. - Trihedral bone 9. - Crescent bone 10. - Large polygonal bone 11. - Small polygonal bone 12. - Scaphoid 13. - Pisiform bone 14. - Distal epiphysis of the radius 15. - Styloid process of the ulna 16. - Distal epiphysis of the ulna 17. - Sesomoid bones of the I metacarpal bones

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bone age is closely correlated with the onset of secondary sexual characteristics than with chronological age. The composition and weight of the body changes, the number of muscle cells in men is 2 times greater than in women. Puberty is one of the stages of the process that begins with sexual differentiation and the formation of the pituitary-gonadal system of the fetus in ontogenesis and ends with puberty. Hormonal shifts (primarily an increase in testosterone) cause male physique and voice changes. Dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the development

the appearance of temporal cavities and beard growth. 6. Only free steroids are physiologically active, and 97 -99% of testosterone and estradiol present in the blood forms a reversible complex with sex steroid binding globulin (SHBG). In puberty, the SHBG level in boys is significantly reduced and in adult men the SHBG level is 2 times lower than in adult women. 7. The nature of the secretion of gonadotropins in men is tonic (basal), secretion is regulated by a negative relationship: a change in the concentration of sex steroids (and possibly inhibin) leads to reciprocal changes in the secretion of pituitary gonadotropins.

Testosterone Ø Ø Ø Ø Masculinizing effects Anabolic effects Formation and maintenance of phenotype Participation in spermatogenesis LH levels, rising in the early stages, slowly reach a plateau. Leydig cells in the testicles under the influence of LH produce mainly testosterone, to a lesser extent androstenedione, androstenediol, estrogens, dihydrotestosterone. A small portion of testosterone is secreted by the adrenal glands.

Pulsed LH secretion in men occurs approximately every 90 to 120 minutes. Testosterone + ASB] seminiferous tubules | | spermatogenic cells | secreted by Sertoli cells part of androgens aromatized into estradiol

Regulation of gametogenic function In boys, the level of FSH progressively increases during the entire period of puberty under the influence of impulses of LRH (luteonizing-releasing hormone of the hypothalamus). Ø Spermatogenic function - sex and follicular (sertolium) cells of the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. Ø Sertoli cells unite germ cells with neuroendocrine HHHC, forming a functional system of gametogenesis endocrine HHHC (GE HHHC). Ø

The exchange of information between the germ cells of all stages of development and the whole organism is carried out mainly by sertolium cells. Spermatogonia can also be involved in the exchange of information with Leydig cells. These interactions are limited by the permeability of the basement membrane. Somatic cells interact with both germ cells and regulatory systems - the most important stage in the relationship between gametogenesis and the environment

Sertoli cells

Puberty and Nubility Ø Ø Ø Puberty (pubes - covered with hair) - puberty coinciding with the completion of body growth, the achievement by all organs of the degree of development that is sufficient for a man to conceive a child, and a woman to endure all the hardships of pregnancy, childbirth and their consequences ... Nubility (from nubis - veil) means the age at which one can put on wedding clothes, in other words, get married. The non-identity of the ability to conceive and the ability to bear offspring is explained by physiological and psychological factors.

In girls under 20 years old, a significant part of the menstrual cycle is anovulatory in nature, as indicated by the absence of a rise in rectal temperature in the 2nd phase of the cycle - the factor of juvenile sterility (absence of ovulation). Ø Psychological unwillingness to create a family, lack of material resources. Ø The predominance of androgens or estrogens in tissues, blood predisposes to a different type of thinking, level of activity, and often aggressiveness, changes the style of personality behavior Ø

Schematic representation of the various stages of maturation of the follicle in the ovary: 1. primordial follicle; 2. - the granular membrane of the follicle; 3. - the inner lining of the follicle; 4 - bubble graf; 5 - white body; 6 - atretic follicle; 7 - interstitial tissue: 8 - ruptured follicle; 9 - corpus luteum: 10 - embryonic epithelium; 11 - regressing corpus luteum; 12 - the gate of the ovary.

Secondary sexual characteristics Ø Ø Ø Ø In girls, the development of the mammary glands is controlled mainly by estrogens secreted by the ovaries. Pubic and axillary hair growth is controlled by androgens secreted by the adrenal glands and ovaries. The development of the mammary glands normally coincides with the stages of pubic hair growth. During puberty, under the stimulating influence of estrogens, the pink surface of the vaginal mucosa turns pale, and the labia majora and minora enlarge. Just before menstruation, a clear or whitish discharge increases. Girls start puberty ½ or 1 year earlier than boys. Between 8 and 13 years (average 11 years) is the onset of puberty in girls.

Ø Ø Ø Ø Axillary hair growth in girls appears at the age of 12, which is 2 years earlier than in boys. In girls, the hips grow faster, the pelvic entrance expands, mainly due to the acetabular bones. The size of the heart increases in girls, as in boys, equally. Girls reach their peak growth rate (PST) before menarche; menstruating girls have limited growth capacity. In girls, rapid growth in puberty is determined by estrogens and growth hormone, although androgens produced in the adrenal glands and ovaries also have some effect. Sex steroids appear to stimulate an increase in the concentration of somatomedin, which mediates an increase in growth hormone secretion. The degree of maturation of the skeletal system is assessed by radiographs of the hand, knee and elbow joints.

Hormonal shifts during puberty n n Changes in the central nervous system (CNS) lead to increased secretion of luteinizing-releasing hormone (LRH) during puberty, which initiates and regulates the sequential increase in the secretion of pituitary gonadotropins and sex steroids, leading to puberty. In girls, FSH increases in the early stages, and LH - rather in the later stages of puberty. Estrogens (estradiol E 2 - the main estrogen) are secreted in girls by 90% by the ovaries. The level of estrogen during puberty in girls gradually increases until its completion, when in

In the follicular phase, it reaches 50 pg / ml, and in the luteal phase, 150 pg / ml and higher. The level of globulin-binding sex hormone (SHBG) in girls and boys is the same. By the end of puberty, prolactin averages 8.5 ng / ml in girls, and 6.0 pg / ml in boys. The increase in somatomedin in girls correlates with estradiol levels. Gonadotropins are secreted in a cyclical manner, due to feedback mechanisms, the secretion of FSH and LH is always impulsive or episodic. Psychological shifts associated with the completion of the process of self-identification of a person is largely due to the maturation of the gonads, an increase in the secretion of sex steroids and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics associated with these processes, and the achievement of fertility.

Menarche is a late phenomenon in the process of puberty, it cannot be one of the factors affecting the onset of hormonal changes. Clinical and experimental data indicate that the factors that determine the timing of puberty realize their action through the central nervous regulation of puberty.

Summary of Puberty v v Puberty is not an inevitable process; it can be stopped and even turned back. Environmental factors and some diseases that affect the onset and stages of puberty, one way or another suppress the hypothalamic impulse generator - LRH. Intense physical activity, anorexia nervosa, can delay or stop puberty, or even transfer the hypothalamic-pituitary complex back to prepubertal state. On the other hand, in rare cases of true premature puberty, caused by pressure on the hypothalamus of the volumetric formations of neighboring brain structures, it is possible to achieve regression by decompression of the brain

Gender criteria Gender genetic: Male chromosomes X, Y; Female chromosomes X, X. Gender phenotypic: features of body structure, type of hair (male) (female). Hormonal sex: androgens; estrogens. Gender gonadal: Genital sex: testicles; ovaries. penis, uterus. scrotum; vagina. Psychological gender: self-identification - who this person considers himself to be (a man or a woman). Social gender or passport: Identification by the society of the person - who the society considers this person to be (entry in the passport).