Galen his life and activity. Claudius Galen Contribution to Biology and Opening

The favorite doctor of the old-timers of forest and citizen is still the most kind words recall Dr. Nikolai Petrovich Benezlavsky. "It was a wonderful doctor, a responsive person who could come to the rescue at any time of the day and night," they talk about him. Remember O.

Galen (129 - approx. 200), one of the most famous ancient Greek doctors and naturalists. Often Galen, in a latinized form, is called Claudius Galenus. Born in Pergamma, an important center of Hellenistic culture in Malaya Asia, located 75 km north of Smirns (Sovr. Izmir). At 15, Galen began to study philosophy, but already at 18 seriously engaged in medicine.

Among his teachers there were several outstanding Greek doctors of that time - Satir, Fizian, Stratonik. In 150, he wrote a philosophical treatise on medical experience, which was preserved in Arabic translation. Then he studied for some time in Smyrna; Having visited Greece, went to study the anatomy in Alexandria, the main center of Greek science and medicine, where the practice of opening human corpses began under the Greek dynasty of Ptolemyev OK. 300 BC e.

Some time Galen worked in Alexandria, improving his knowledge of medicine and paying special attention to the study of the human skeleton. After returning to Pergam in 157, he became the attending physician of gladiators and athletes. I gained great experience in practical medicine and surgery, began to conduct physiological experiments. About 159, putting experiments on pigs, Galen opened the functions of nerves controlling the voice: for example, tightening or relaxing the ligature, he could regulate the activities of these nerves. At about the same time, he studied the complex structure and muscle functions involved in breathing.

In 162, having a solid reputation, Galen leaves Pergam to work in Rome. Galen was an extremely lucky practicing physician, often he was taken to treat those patients from which other doctors refused from which from hopeless. Had a lot of disciples, made an autopsy and experimented. We know about several famous patients in Rome. Among them were the emperor Mark Arellium, Roman pretort and future Palestinian governor.

Four years later, Galen rides in Greece (such trips are characteristic of that era) and on obscure reasons remains again in Pergam. However, when the plague epidemic begins in Akvilee in the troops in the troops, the emperor sends herself over Galen. He immediately arrives, and then returns to Rome along with the emperor as a personal doctor of his eleven-year-old son and the heir to Commoda.

Judging by the scientific work of Galen, the next six years were the most productive in his life. Duties at the court did not take a lot of time, he could safely deal with students, visiting patients and conduct experiments and openings. In 175, the Commod goes to the east, where his father was then, and Galen in Rome leads a permanent and very successful practice. Three years later, the emperor Mark Azeri died, in 192 the commod was killed.

Galen is prudent returning to Pergam. There he finishes the last big work and constitutes the catalog of his own writings. This is the most valuable source of data on his life, which is often considered one of the first (from those known in the literature) autobiographies; In any case, it is undoubtedly the first autobiography of the doctor. Galen died in Rome or Pergamma OK. 200.

The collection of writings Galen, which came to our time, exceeds the volume of all medical essays written before him; For us, they are the main source of information on ancient medicine. Most works of that era, with the exception of those that have come under the name of the hypocratic, were lost. And medical works written after Galen, mostly based on his writings or simply are their repetitions or compilations.

Usually, its writings refer to the only "modern" edition, which claims to relative completeness. This is the edition of K. Kyun (1754-1840) in 22 volumes, published in 1821-1833. It includes 122 separate works. After entering the light of this edition, a number of Galen works were discovered. Many of his works are finally lost, some have reached us only in Arab translations made in 9 or 10 centuries.

Both in the east and in the West Galen was considered a continuing authority to almost 16 V. Without a doubt, his writings significantly affected the development of medicine. Especially authoritative in the Middle Ages was his huge work method of Healing (De Methodo Medendi), also known as the Great Science (Lat. Ars Magna, Greek. "Mega Techne"), which existed in several abbreviated versions.

It is it that in a more or less vulgarized form was the basis for the formation of medieval doctors. However, starting from 17 V. This book has almost no effect on medicine: only some of the valuable herbal preparations mentioned in it remained in use called "Galenov".

Books on anatomy and physiology contain extensive actual material and closest to science in their spirit. They also had the greatest influence: translated into Latin and published in the 16th century, these works became the basis for the development of modern scientific medicine. Many terms of the modern medical language directly go to Galen or to the Latin translation of his work.

Other writings are devoted to pathology, hygiene, issues of dietetting and therapy, pharmacology. There are comments on the writings of hippocrates, polemical compositions on medicine, works on philosophy, logic and philology. Many of his medical works had a lot of weight in the Middle Ages, but only books on anatomy, physiology, hygiene and pathology contributed to the development of modern medicine.

The worldview and the theory of Galen. Galen believed in a single god-creator, his whole scientific activity was imbued with the consciousness of the divinity of the creation of all of nature and first of all the person. Galen believed that everything is in the structure human organism, right up to the smallest details, was created by God. A favorite example for the proof of this served Galen a human hand. Each of her muscles, tendon, nerve, bone, blood vessel created, in his opinion, is so perfect how much it is possible.

The arguments about Hand Galen dedicated a lot of pages of huge work on the appointment of parts of the human body (DE USU Partium Corporis Humani). True, descriptions here are more likely to limb McAki Res than human hand. Galen knew the human skeleton well, but he made confused in the anatomy of man, trying to "hang up" on the human skeleton muscle system of the monkey.

The doctrine of pneuma. Theories of Galen, which we would now be called physiological, were also associated with his religious views. He firmly believed in the existence of a pneuma, that is, "spirit" or "breathing of life." He believed that the world was full of pneuma, which in respiration is drawn into the body, as well as that when world pneuma ceases to inhale, a person or other living creature die. Finding into the liver, food is processed there in the "Natural Spirit" (Greek. "Pneuma Fusikon").

Blood from the liver goes to all parts of the body and to the heart, where it passes through the pores (in fact, not existing) in a partition separating left and right ventricles. There she is mixed with the "world spirit" and turns into a "life spirit" (lat. Spiritus vitalis), and passing from the left ventricle to the arterial system and then into the brain, falls into the "wonderful network" (lat. Rete Mirabile) (also not Existing), where turns into the "spiritual spirit" (lat. Spiritus Animalis), distributing on the nerves that were mistakenly considered hollow vessels.

The teaching of the hypocrat about four "juices". Galen adhered to the teachings of hippocrat about four juices (gumors), which correspond to four types of temperament. This is blood (sanguine), phlegm (phlegmatic), black bile (melancholic), yellow bile (choleric). Data juices Galen corrected with four classic primary elements: earth, air, fire and water.

Main Works. The most fully the anatomical gins of Galen are set forth in his great work on the anatomy (De Anatomicis AdministrationIbus). Initially, he included 16 books, of which only the first nine reached us in Greek, others have been preserved in Arab translations. The application for this work is a small bone treatise.

This is the only antique anatomical work, directly based on the study of human anatomy in the era, when the autopsy of the human body was prohibited. Descriptions are distinguished by great accuracy, especially valuable descriptions of the bones of the skull. Galen believes his teeth bones and leads a completely plausible version of their origin. He has 24 vertebrae, located above the sacrum, which believes the most important bone of the spinal column, and gives accurate and detailed descriptions of the ribs, sternum, clavicle and bones of the limbs.

Galen determined two main types of joints, calling them diarrosis and synarzami. The first is movable joints, the second is fixed joints, such as skull seams. These terms, like many others, are preserved in modern medical nomenclature.

There is no doubt that the work of Galen on the muscles system was largely innovative. He wrote a special book about the movement of the muscles (de Motu Musculorum). Probably, the muscles are described in its works with the most accuracy. In the writings of Galen, the form and functions of the muscles of various animals are often mentioned. So, the muscles of the soccer and the larynx are described on the example of the bull, and the muscles of the tongue - on the example of the monkey. Often he notes the difference between certain animal muscles, which describes, and the corresponding muscles of a person.

Galen's brain descriptions are less original than muscle descriptions or spinal cord experiments. Obviously, most often he meant the bull's brain, as it pays particular attention to the "wonderful network", which is well developed from this animal, but there is no person.

Experiments with a complete or partial convergence of the spinal cord at different levels are described clearly and accurately, they were the basis of modern studies of the central nervous system. The scientist knew about the existence of ganglia (nerve knots) and traced the sympathetic nervous system in all its elements.

Blood vessels are described by Galen worse than bones, muscles or nervous system. He dedicated them a special job about the anatomy of veins and arteries (De Venarum Arternumque Disection), but false ideas about blood circulation prevented research in this area. Following the hippocracy, the venous system was compared with the tree, whose roots go from the abdominal organs. The trunk is a large vein of breast and abdominal cavity, branches are in the lungs and other parts of the body; It is especially important that the branch that we now call the right ventricle.

Vienna are submitted by leaving the liver. Galen had a sound idea of \u200b\u200bthe overall direction of blood flow in the veins. He believed that the veins receive food from the intestines and carry it to the liver through the "Gate" (Greek. "Pule", Lat. Porta), hence the modern name "Torny Vienna". He had clear ideas about brain veins, and some of them still worry his name. Attention that Galen pays to the surface veins, the modern reader may seem excessive.

Galen gave a comparative description of the arteries. The "roots" arterial system comes from the arterial vein (in the lungs), which we now call the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle and aorta are considered as a barrel from which branches depart. Galen noticed that the artery wall was much thicker than the veins.

He proved that his predecessors-anatomas who believed that the arteries contain air, or a pneuma, or both together, and that blood gets into them only after the end, they were mistaken. For this, Galen put a highly visual experiment: it opened the artery on sufficient length and in two places she was tied up, and then cut it between two ligatures, after which blood flowed. Through the dressing, she could not pass, which means it was supposed to be in the artery before their imposition.

From the 16th century It was known that most of the openings Galen spent on the monkeys and what exactly they are described by it in a practical treatise on anatomy. Subsequently, the question was repeatedly discussed, whether he made the openings of human bodies. In some places, Galen mentions the openings of a person, in others you can see the hint that he produced them himself.

Galen had a lot of disciples, but due to the time of the troubled time, his work did not receive continuation. With his death, the development of experimental physiology has stopped at least 1300 years.

Galen was born in Pergama (ancient Greece) in about 130 in the family of a rich architect. Father Galen, Nikon, was a comprehensive developed person, was interested in philosophy, literature, mathematics, astronomy and many other areas of knowledge. With youthful years, Nikon gave Galen to study philosophy. He dreamed, so that his son became a politician or philosopher. One day, Nikona dreamed of a dream in which he gave his son to study his healing. After that, Galen was sent for 4 years in Askletpion. Thus, philosophy went to the background, and Galen devoted himself to the study of medicine.

After the death of the Father, Galen has traveled to various countries, as well as cities and islands of ancient Greece. Having touched knowledge and new medical traditions, he returned to Pergam in 157. There he worked as a doctor of gladiators of one influential high priest. I achieved certain success in this place: he paid great attention to the injuries of gladiators, as a result of which the number of their deaths decreased. Four years later, Galen moved to Rome, where he continued his medical practice. Accompanied emperors Mark Aureliya and Lucia Vera during the epidemic during the trips to Germany.

Upon returning to Rome, Galen was a personal physician of the Imperial heir to Commoda. At the court he wrote a lot of essays about medicine. He studied the data on the epidemic that struck the Roman Empire and abandoned more than 3.5 million lives in a couple of years. He defined the symptoms of the disease, described how to treat it. The plague called by Antoninovskaya Chuma, as well as by the name of the doctor - Chuma Galen, was caused by the Ose virus. This epidemic has become the largest in ancient Rome on the scale and occupied an important place in the history of medicine.

Galen is the author of numerous works in the field of medicine and philosophy. It was only about 100 of them to this day. He created the theory of blood circulation, described about three hundred of human muscles, determined the role of nerves in the human body, was the founder of pharmacology. Galen was considered an influential and authoritative doctor of antiquity up to the end of the Middle Ages.

Among scientists there is no consensus relative to the date of death of the Great Medicine. According to various sources, Galen died aged 70 or 87 years in Rome.

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Much of his heritage has been preserved due to translations to Syrian, Arabic, Hebrew, Latin and Old Armenian.

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Biography

early years

Galen describes his youth in labor "On the affection of the mind." He was born in September 129. His father, Nikon, was a rich knowledgeable architect and a builder who was interested in philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "very kind, simple, good and benevolent person." At that time, Pergam was a significant cultural and intellectual center, a famous library (EVME II), the second largest after Alexandrian, and attracted both philosophers and platonists. Galen was represented by Pergamian philosophers aged 14. His philosophy classes included all the philosophical systems that have existed at the time, including the philosophy of Aristotle and Epicureism. His father wanted Galen to become a philosopher or a politician, and tried to enlighten him in matters of literature and philosophy. Galen argues that in about 145, his father had a dream, in which Asklepius ordered Nikona to send her son to study medicine. Father did not regret money, and at 16, Galen began to study medicine in Askletpione, where he studied four years. Asclepion was both a temple, and a hospital in which any patient could have to seek the help of clergy. Here came the Romans in search of treatment. The temple was also a challenge of famous people, such as the historian of Claudius Characters, Orator Elya Aristide, Sophist Polemon, Consul Rufin Kuspi.

In 148, when Galen was 19 years old, his father died, leaving him his condition. Galen followed the advice of the Hippocratic and went to learn, visiting Smyrna, Corinth, Crete, Kilicia, Cyprus, and Finally, the Great Medical School of Alexandria, studying various medical traditions. In 157, at the age of 28, Galen returned to Pergami and became the doctor of Gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and rich people in Asia's province. Galen argues that the high priest chose him after he was the extraction of the insoles of the monkey and offered other doctors to return it to a normal state. After they refused, Galen did it himself, deserving the confidence of the high priest. For four years, Galen was convinced of the need for diet, sports, hygiene and prevention, studied anatomy, treatment of fractures and heavy injuries, calling injuries "body windows". About what the attention of Galen paid their injury, the fact that only five gladiators died during his work, while during his predecessor of dead gladiators had sixty. At the same time, Galen continued to learn theoretical medicine and philosophy.

Mature years

Since 161, Rome was involved in the war. Mark Aurelius and Lucius Ver in the north fought with Markamans. In the autumn of 169, when Roman troops returned to Aquile, a terrible epidemic broke out, and Galen was called back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Mark Aureliya and Lucia Vera in Germany. The next spring Mark Azeri let go of Galen, after the report that the asclepius against this enterprise. He was sent as a doctor to the Imperial Heir to Commodity. It was here, at the courtyard, Galen wrote a lot to the medical topics. Ironically, Lucius Vel died in 169, and Mark Azeri in 180, both became victims of the epidemic.

Galen was a personal commodity doctor almost all the life of the emperor. According to Dion Cassia, about 189 in the reign of commodity, the largest epidemic from famous to him, 2000 people died in Rome every day. Most likely it was the same disease that struck Rome during the Board of Mark Aureliya.

Antoninovskaya Chuma

Antoninov's plague is named after the family name Mark Arellium. It was also called Chuma Galen and occupied an important place in the history of medicine due to what was associated with the name Galen. He was in Rome in 166, when the epidemic began, as well as in the winter of 168-69 during the re-epidemic among the troops in Aquilee. Galen called the epidemic is very long. Unfortunately, the records that came to us are the records of Galen brief and non-systematic, as he did not try to describe the disease for the descendants, he was more interested in the symptoms of the disease and methods of treatment.

Mortality accounted for 7-10%. The epidemic for the years 165-168 took from 3.5 to 5 million lives. Some researchers [ who?] They believe that more than half of the population of the empire died and that this epidemic was the most disastrous in the history of the Roman Empire. It is believed that Antoninov's plague was caused by the Ose virus, since, despite the incomplete description, Galen left enough information about the symptoms of the disease.

Galen wrote that the rash that covered the whole body was usually black, but there were no ulcers, and those who survived, remained black rash because of blood residues in the mouth of the blisters and there were blistering. Galen argues that the skin rash was close to the one that Fucdide described. Galen describes problems with gastrointestinal tract and diarrhea. If the chair was black, the patient died. Galen also describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, unpleasant smell of mouth, cough.

Death

In writings Galen mentioned 304 plants, 80 animals and 60 minerals.

Quotes

• "Get up from behind the table slightly hungry, and you will always be healthy."
• "Who wants to contemplate the creation of nature, should not trust the compositions on anatomy, but must rely on their eyes, engaged in anatomy of love for science."
• "A good doctor must be a philosopher."
• "I often had to drive a hand of surgeons, little sophisticated in anatomy, and those save them from a public shame."
• "There is not a single part of the body, not a single movement called arbitrary, nor a single feeling."
• "Thousands and thousands of times I returned health with my patient through exercise."
• "Health is a kind of harmony, but its borders are very broad and not everyone has the same"

Heritage

Late antiquity

During his life, Galen was considered a legendary doctor and philosopher, Emperor Mark Arellium described it as "Primum Sane Medicorum Esse, Philosophhorum Autem Solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers). Greek authors such as Theodot Kozhevnik, Athens and Alexander Aphrodiysky supported this opinion.

Nevertheless, the whole importance of his contribution to science was not assessed by contemporaries. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of the works of Galen completely ceased. In Byzantium, nevertheless, many Galen works have survived and studied. Syrian Christians learned about the works of Galen at a time when Byzantia Rules of Syria and Western Mesopotamia. In the seventh century, these lands were captured by Muslims. After 750, Muslims and Syrian Christians transferred the work of Galen to Arabic. Since then, Galen and all Greek medicine have been assimilated in the medieval culture of the Islamic Middle East.

Effect on Islamic medicine

The first serious translator of Galen to Arabic was the Syrian Christian Hunin Ibn Ishac Al-Ibadi. Hunin translated 129 works of Galen. One of the Arab translations, Cytab Al Agluugan Fihiff Al Amaze, who is stored at the IBN Sina Academy, is considered the most outstanding of Galen's translations. Part of the Alexandrian collection of works Galen, this 10th century manuscript consists of two parts, which include detailed information about various types of fever and various inflammatory processes. Moreover, it contains more than 150 prescription drugs of both vegetable and animal origin. The book gives an excellent idea of \u200b\u200bGreek and Roman medicine and is a source of information about ancient medication.

Arabic sources, such as odds, continue to serve as a source of information about the lost works of Galen. In sampler, as well as Ibn Zuhra and Ibn An-Nafis Proceedings Galen are not accepted as truths in the last instance, but serve as a basis for further research.

West acquaintance with Galen

Starting from the XI century, the translations of Arab medical treatises for Latin appeared in Europe. One of the translators of Galen from Arabic to Latin was associated with the Salernian medical school Konstantin African. In the XII century Burgundy Pisanian (eng.)russian translated "περι κpacεων" Galen to Latin ( De Complexionibus.) Immediately with Greek. In the XIII century. Galen began to learn students of Universities Naples and Montpellier. From that time, Galen was considered a continued authority, he was even called the "Medieval Medical Dad". Galen's works became the main textbooks for doctors along with difficulty ibn-sine Canon medical sciencewhich was also based on the writings of Galen.

In contrast to the pagan Rome in Christian Europe, there was no universal ban on the opening of the human body, and such studies were carried out regularly, at least from the XIII century. Nevertheless, the influence of Galen in Europe, as in the Arab world, was so strong that when discrepancies with the anatomy of Galen with openings, doctors often tried to explain them in the framework of Galenovsky teaching. For example, Mondino de LutsciThe circulatory system described in his writings, argued that the air should be in the left ventricle. Some explained the differences in that since Galen, human anatomy has changed.

Renaissance

Modern research

At the moment there are only two translations of the works of Galen into Russian. The first one - "On the appointment of the human body" was published in 1971 edited by Academician V. N. Ternovsky. In 2014, the staff of the Department of Medicine History, the history of the Fatherland and Cultural Science of the First MGMU. I. M. Sechenova Dmitry Balalykin, Andrei Scheglov and Natalia Shock published a book "Galen: a doctor and philosopher", which included the translation of the three texts of the thinker and their historical and philosophical analysis. The following texts entered the translation: "The method of recognition and treatment of passions of any, including its own", "On recognition and treatment of delusions of every soul", "that the best doctor is also a philosopher." According to the authors, in foreign historiography, the interest in the philosophical and research method Galen has grown in the past twenty years. The authors associate this process with the revision of the views of historians and philosophers on the relationship between science and religion, as well as with a change in the scientific paradigm during the period of scientific and technological progress - recently the idea of \u200b\u200bmultidisciplinality of medical training is considered a guarantee of successful activities. This theory is perfectly combined with Galen's hypothesis that a true doctor should also be a philosopher - an expert in different disciplines. From 2014, the same team began to publish the writings of Galen in Russian translation. While published volume 1.

Notes

1. « Life, Death, And Entertainment In The Roman Empire" David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). University of Michigan Press. P.63. ISBN 0-472-08568-9
2. Galen On The Affected Parts
3. ARTHUR JOHN BROCK (TRANSLATOR), Introduction. Galen. ON THE NATURAL FACULTIES. Edinburgh 1916.
4. Galen on the Brain
5. Antique philosophy: Encyclopedic dictionary. M., 2008. P. 250
6. Andreas vesalius. DE HUMANI CORPORIS FABRICA, LIBRI VII :. - Basel, Switzerland: Johannes Oporinus, 1543.
7. William Harvey. Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus :. - Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Sumptibus Guilielmi Fitzeri, 1628. - P. 72. - ISBN 0-398-00793-4.
8. FURLEY, D, AND J. WILKIE, 1984, Galen On Respiration And The Airlies, Princeton University Press, and BYLEBYL, J (ED), 1979, William Harvey and His Age, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
9. Greg Woolf. . - Cambridge University Press, 2003. - P. 248.

   Original text (eng.)

   SO MUCH OF GALEN "S OEUVRE HAS SURVED, IN A RANGE OF LANGUAGES FROM ORIGINAL GREEK THROUGH SYRIAC, ARABIC, HEBREW, LATIN AND ARMENIAN, BECAUSE OF THE DOMINANT POSITION GALEN ATTAINED IN THE CLASSICAL MEDICAL TRADITION.

10. γαληνός . Liddell, H. G., Scott, R. A Greek-English Lexicon / ON PERSEUS DIGITAL LIBRARY.
11. Nutton, V. (1973). "The Chronology of Galen" S Early Career ". Classical Quarterly.. 23 (1): 158-171. DOI: 10.1017 / S0009838800036600. PMID.
12. Metzger, B. M. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. - Brill, 1980. - ISBN 90-04-06163-0, ISBN 978-90-04-06163-7.
13. Hippocrates. Airs, Waters, and Places. / Jones (Ed.). - 70-2.
14. USTUN, C. Galen and His Anatomic Eponym: Vein Of Galen. / Clinical Anatomy, 2004 - Vol. 17. - Issue 6. - P. 454-457.

For centuries, the memory of Galene lives, and this test of time eloquently speaks about the meaning of his discoveries and works that have enriched humanity.

Galen was born about 130 G.N. in the city of Pergama to the board of Emperor Adrian; He died about 200, too, in the city of Pergamum. His long life, despite the weak health in his youth, is explained by the habit of abstaining. "Get up from behind the table slightly hungry and you will always be healthy," he taught.

Pergam - in the past, the capital of the Pergham kingdom of attalides, one of the states founded by the successors of Alexander Macedonian in the north-western part of Malaya Asia. Pergamum was its cultural center. In 133 BC e. The Pergamm kingdom was the Roman province.

The rich library of Pergama competed his fullness with the richest Alexandria library and was one of his attractions. When the importation of the Egyptian papyrus was restricted, the parchment was invented in Pergamum, which received its name on the zgetie of this city.

Until our time, there is a famous Pergamian altar of Zeus with images of scenes struggle giants with giants - a popular myth in Ancient Greece. The altar is constructed at the beginning of the II century BC. This is a huge structure with a height of more than 9 m, up to 120 m long. Preserved up to 50 figures of gods and the same number of giants. This altar is kept in the special Museum "Pergamon" in Democratic Berlin. This is the most interesting monument. It is described by I. S. Turgenev (writings, t. XI, 1956). From the ancient Pergamum (the city of Bergam in Turkey), only ruins were preserved to this day.

Father Galen Nikon was known as a versatile gifted person: architect, mathematician, philosopher.He sought to give her son more education. Galen teachers were prominent Pergaman scientists: Anata Satir, pathologist Stratonik, philosopher-empiric Eschrion and many more scientists.

Galen diligently studied the works of Aristotle, Feofrast and other philosophers. After the death of Father Galen took a long journey. At the age of 21, he came to Smyrna and was engaged in anatomy from the Anatoma Pelops, and he studied the philosophy under the leadership of Albina. Then he lived in Corinth, where he studied natural science and medicine from Numeresian. He also visited Maly Asia and famous Alexandrpu, where he was diligently engaged in anatomy at the famous heraklion.

The theoretical justifications of Galen's medical and biological views in many ways resulted in the teachings of the Hippocratic School (460-356), Aristotle (384-323), Alkmeon and the lateral school scientists of the Alexandria.

Alexandrian epoch - an important milestone in the cultural life of the ancient world, lasted from IV to II century BC. Alexandria, built by the Talented Architect of Dinokrath Rhodes in the decision of Alexander the Macedonian at the mouth of one of Nile's sleeves, was within three centuries the capital of Egypt's era of Hellenism. 50 years after the founding of the city, there were more than 300,000 inhabitants in it - it was one of the most populated cities of the ancient world, and about 1 million people lived to the beginning of the Christian era. Square it occupied up to 100 km 2. Alexandria was famous for his outstanding scientists. Foocritus, Demetrius Falersky, founder of the Museon and the library in Alexandria lived there. Museum is a genus of a scientist brotherhood with a cult of muses, where the joint work of scientists practiced. This example of uniting scientific creativity of scientists was perceived from Aristotle and Feofrast. Scientists and their pets were grouped around the library and scientific collections. Museuon had halls for lectures for meals and anatomical sections. With the museum there were housing rooms.

Museo - the oldest university, the inhabitants and listeners of which were scientists, poets and philosophers.The number of students of the museum reached several hundred people. He led the Museon Magazin Muses. Among the librarians was the head of the new poetic school of Callima

In 47 BC e. When taking Alexandria, 700,000 scrolls had Julia Caesar. According to some data, some of this manuscript repository then suffered from fire. Roman commander Anthony, wanting to bring Dar Cleopatre, Queen Egypt, handed 200,000 Scriming from the Globam library to the Alexandria library.

Under the emperor Aurelian in 273 N. e. During the war, Aurelian with the queen Palmyra Zynovia, who founded a large eastern power, burned the museum along with the library.

Among the scientists, Alexandrian epoch should be noted in the III and II centuries BC. Euclide - Mathematics and Geometer, Hipparch - the founder of trigonometry, Gerona - the inventor of the steam machine and the famous Archimedes, who also often lived in the Museum of Alexandria.

Museum visited a lot of poets, astronomers and geographers, but physicians n among them are of particular interest to us - anatomas. In ancient Greece, there was a stern ban on the autopsy of the dead. In Alexandria, where the old traditions of Egypt in connection with the balsamped-eat dead were still alive and the autopsy of the human body was quite acceptable, the scientist was given the opportunity to widely apply the section to study the structure and functions of the human body.

So, herofil born in 300 BC. e. In Viphinpp, the student of Praksagora Koskoy and Chrysippa, taught anatomy in Museyon and was engaged in the opening of human corpses to show and research them. Anata Straton Lammnsak, a friend of Gerofila, was a good experimenter. Herophile, according to the testimony of the Turratolian, publicly opened more than 600 corpses. Herofplu managed to correctly describe the structure of many organs of the human body. He distinguished the veins from the arteries and noted the presence of blood in those in others. Herofil gave the name of the pulmonary veins, studied and described the anatomy of the liver, pancreas and genitals.

With special care, the Herofpl studied vessels and heart.The push of the pulse wave, according to herofila, is reported to arteries from the heart. Studying the pulse, it set four phases: systole, diastole and two intermediate intervals. Herophile measured the pulse rate with water watches. He studied the eye, the optic nerve and the mesh shell, the brain, his connection with the spinal cord. He established a distinction between tendons and nerves, conducting sensations, although in Greek and tendon, and nerves were one name - "nerves". Herofil separated sensitive nerves from the motor. Herofila Alexandrian needs to be considered the founder of scientific anatomy.

The contemporary of Herofila Erasistraist, according to Pliny, - a relative of Aristotle, belonging to the Book School, worked for many years in the Alexandrian Museyon and, together with herofil, studied the vascular apparatus. He explored the Milky mesense vessels in living goats, the brain, his nervous centers and gyruses. He died about 240 g. BC. The studies of the erasistrate were devoted to the study of the function of organs. The erasistraist is considered the founder of scientific physiology, and we are obliged to the discovery of the method of experimental study of the crust and the convolutions of the brain. Anatomy in its broad sense has acquired the nature of independent science due to the works of scientists of the Alexandria school.

Galen studied the works of scientists of the Alexandria school, and they were the basis of his medical knowledge and views. Having studied with the great thoroughness of the work of his predecessors, especially their contemporaries, quoting their works and referring to them, Galen retained for subsequent generations of their PM-on and achievements in science, since the compositions of many of them permanently died as the extensive Alexandria library and her The richest archives and in the death of other books in the turbulent era of the collapse of the ancient world and the invasion of the heated eastern conquerors.

Galen's journey to Alexandria extremely expanded the range of his knowledge and interests. He greedily watched and studied all the sciences of interest. Galen knew all the Greek adverbs, as well as Latin, Ethiopian and Persian languages. For more than 6 years held Galen on a journey and, when he returned to Pergam again, became a doctor at the school of gladiators, where 4 years was engaged in surgery. In 164, a 34-year-old scientist moved to Rome and soon became popular there as an educated lecturer and an experienced doctor; He was known to the emperor and philosopher Mark Abreliya, got sick with the Peripatetics Eevitem, known in Rome by the philosopher, whom he heal and who glorified him as a stemless doctor.

The noisy life in Rome and the hostile attitude of some doctors of Dogmatics to Galen forced him to leave Rome and take a new journey in Italy. Then he visited Pergam and and Smyrna, where he visited his mentor Pelops. At the invitation of emperors, Mark Aurelia and Lucia Vera, he returned to Rome again through Macedonia.

Galen, having made a popular physician and supervising patients from Roman nobility, did not refuse assistance and the poor patients. The Roman Patricia of Boeotias, together with friends Galen insisted at the opening of the course of lectures on anatomy, Pelon read them in the temple of the world with an extensive audience of interest to the science of citizens and representatives of medicine.

In their lectures, Galen demonstrated the openings of various animals. At the same time, he survived the hard shock - the loss of his manuscripts burned during a fire in the temple of the world, where the entire Palatinsky library was died, stored there. Rome Galen wrote a lot of works and among them their main anatomy-physiological composition "De Usu Partium Corporis Humani" ("On the appointment of parts of the human body"). He is the author of more than 125 works.

Galen, a universal scientist, wrote not only medical treatises, but also philosophical, mathematical and legal proceedings. About 80 people belonging to him are reached. They relate to anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, therapy, hygiene, dietics, obstetrics and embryology. He wrote his works in Greek, p language his research works are interesting for a linguist. Galen carefully studied anatomy and in his studies sought to rely on the facts extracted by anatomy. He wrote: "It is necessary to know exactly the functions and, above all, the structure of each part, exploring the facts open by anatomy, and personally observing; After all, now the books of those who call themselves an anatomas are replete with thousands of mistakes "(" On the appointment of parts of the human body ", KN. II, ch. VII).

Galen also wrote: "Who wants to contemplate the creation of nature, should not trust the writings on anatomy, but must rely on his eyes, or visiting us or someone from those who usually work with us, or must independently do anatomy from love for science independently "(" On the appointment of parts of the human body ", KN. II, Ch. III).

About scientists who brought up Galen's views, he said: "Be indulgent to previous anatomies, if a difficult fact has escaped from their explosions" ("On the appointment of parts of the human body", KN. VII, Ch. XIV).

Galen attached very important importance to the study of the anatomy and physiology of animals on the basis of his own experience. These works are particularly important in its extensive scientific heritage.

The main source of knowledge, an infallible teacher of Truth Galen considered nature. All his work is anthem nature.

Galen wrote more than once: "Everything that is created by nature is excellent." "Learn the words describing the amazing mysters of nature." Naturalist Galen rustically studied nature. The path of research aspirations Galen was absolutely correct and advanced for his time.

Predecessors and contemporaries Galen, explaining the origin of the world, considered the "Creator of all things" the deity. Galen preferred another term - "demiurg", so called the leading officer in some Greek republics.

Deep studies of Galen in the field of studying the organism of animals and humans were a huge shift in the development of medical science.

All his studies Galen conducted mainly on corpses of various animals: dogs, pigs, bears, single-speed, ruminants and especially monkeys, mainly lower. By virtue of the cult laws of the Romans, who forbidden the autopsy of the dead, he was forced to resort to the study of animal organs, comparing them with the organs of the human body. These episodic capabilities of comparisons were rare. The anatomy of man Galen managed to study on the corpses of those killed in war, on bodies convicted to steal wild beasts, in the study of Russian wounds and on the corpses of secretly born babies thrown into the street. The difficulty of producing human corpses and their research was the cause of many Galen errors in the descriptions of the organs of the human body.

The huge merit of Galen was that he was aware and often corrected his mistakes and mistakes of other anatoms.He wrote: "How dare you say that the monkey in everything (italics is mine. - V. T.) is like a person" ("On the appointment of parts of the human body", KN. I, Ch. XX). He dreamed of the opportunity to explore and correctly describe the structure of the human body. In the work of "De Usu Partium Corporis Humani" he wrote: "Among these shortest living beings is a person, to describe the structure of which is our present goal" ("On the appointment of parts of the human body", KN. VIII, Ch. I). It was the main purpose of its anatomical research.

If Galen failed to fully accomplish the intended work, then he was still a huge merit that he gave a detailed special description of all the anatomical structures studied by him.

One of the main writings Galen "De Anatomia" ("On Anatomy") consists of 16 books; It came to us nine of them. These books are written in Greek, which at that time was a generally accepted language in science. In this study, Galen gives a consistent and complete description of the structure of the body.

Along with a large number of morphological observations, research and discoveries Galen belongs to one of the first places in the application of the experimental method for studying the anatomy. Anatomical views are pretty detailed, they developed all departments, but not equally fully. Osteology has been studied more thoroughly studied in Alexandril. Describing the bones, Galen noted, chtto they are covered in a living organism with a membrane - periosteum. He differed in the skeleton of the bone of the long, having a canal with a bone marrow, and the bones are flat, devoid of the canal. In Kostya, he described apophysis, diaphysis and epiphysis. True, the term "Diaphiz" Galen understood not, as we understand it now. The first two terms reached up to our time in Galenovsky interpretation. Preserved and entered into the anatomical terminology of GalenovskPy Termin-TroChanter (Trokhanter).

In their morphological descriptions, Galen relatively described the skull; He noted the merit of the hypocratic, which describes four forms of head (skull) and each of the seams, which Galen wrote in his main work "On the appointment of parts of the human body".

Galen's teeth considered the skeleton bones. He was engaged in the study of the origin of the teeth and described it in his anatomical treatise.

In the axial skeleton, the spine, Galen described 24 vertebrae of a person who are moving to a sacral and cochochy bone. On the lumbar vertebra Galen found a process inherent in a monkey and the missing person. Persons Galen considers the most important reference bone, but describes it consisting of three fragments, i.e., such as he saw him in pigs. Galen correctly described the clavicle, ribs and other bones of a man, he described in cholemia, not on the human skeleton, but on the skeletons of animals. He believed that the breast consists of seven parts and triangular cartilage, i.e. like dogs.

Galen described the bones of the upper and lower extremities. In its bona fide osteological descriptions there are still inevitable inaccuracies.

As for the teachings of Galen on bones' connections, he noted and called two types of compounds: darteroses - mobile connections, and synartroses are fixed. Diarrosis, he divided into Anarthrosis, Arthodia and Ginglym. Galen's synartroses subdivided on the seams, homophoz n flat spurs, such as the symphiz of pubic bones. This classification of Galen is adopted for joints and in modern anatomy. But still, in the descriptions of Galen, there are many inaccuracies, especially in the description of the league-tous and articular devices of a person.

The merit of Galen in the study of the active apparatus of the movement.Galen wrote a treatise entitled to them "On the anatomy of the muscles". In his myiological treatise, Galen one of the first researchers was systematically and systematically studied muscle anatomy.

The absence of an anatomical nomenclature, which was developed only in the XVI century in the writings of Jacques Dubois-Silvia (1478-1555) and Adrian Spiegelia (1578-1625), very complicates the clarification of the texts of Galen, describing the muscles. About 300 muscles are described by Galen. He correctly described the muscles of his eyes, but did not describe the block muscle. Galen studied the muscles of the neck, back, larynx, chewing muscles. The term "Masseter" Galen offered the same as the term "Cremaster".

Galen first described the seabic muscle of the neck - Plazpa. He described the popliteal muscles and Achillovo tendon originating from the calf muscle. But many Muscles Galen did not indicate the terms. So, a bulbous-cavernous muscle he simply called the muscle of the cervical bubble. In its description, Galen's muscle anatomy celebrated some muscles that do not exist in humans. At the same time, he incorrectly described the points of attachments and the function of some existing muscles in humans. Studying the muscles, Galen described the heart-shaped, inter-care muscles, but did not know about the existence of a muscle in humans, which antiplosing a thumb - characteristic of a person, described the brush of monkeys, not a person.

On the famous portrait of Andrei Kresalia, the work of the artist Van Calcar, applied to the first edition of his treatise "On the structure of the human body", Kezalia is depicted in a suspended corpse and the preparing brush hands. On the table in front of him is the manuscript of the Latin Text Galen, in which the movements of the five fingers of the brush are described. This text seems to emphasize that a weak point in Galen's studies is a brush of a human hand, as it is described incomplete and wrong, and Vezalia demonstrates it in their portrait, in which the compositions probably also participated.

Galen experimentally showed that the limb alternately bends internal, then externalized with outdoor muscles. So, describing the fifth muscle, the greatest, in his opinion, from all the muscles of the body, leading the thigh p consisting of a large, medium and small muscles attached to the inner and rear parts of the femoral edge and descending down almost to the knee joint, he analyzing it The function, wrote: "The rear fibers of this muscle, coming from the sedlication bone, strengthen the leg, straining the joint. No less severely, this action is made by the lower portion of fibers coming from the pubic bone, which is joined by another light rotary movement inside. The above their lying fibers lead the thigh inside in the same way as the top lead and at the same time are somewhat lifted by the thigh "(" On the appointment of parts of the human body ", kN. XV, ch. VIII; cunner, p. 885). Thoroughly studying the muscles, Galen noted: "Can you foresee the effects of injury, not knowing the longitudinal, transverse or oblique direction of the muscle?" ("On the appointment of parts of the human body"). So the observational researcher Galen associated the structure of the body with the forecast of its cure during injuries.

Hungiology in Galen is presented extensively and thoroughly, according to the views of that era. He considered the heart to be a "compidant" organ, and not with the muscle, because it did not find the presence of nerve sprigs characteristic of skeletal muscles. The location of the heart was mistakenly determined in the center of the chest.

Galen correctly described the coronary vessels of the heart and arterial Botalals duct.

Galen's heart shape considered permeable for blood, which could leak through her left heart into the right.

This look was unshakable up to the era of Nezelia, who, as well as his predecessors, could not discover these holes in the partition between muscle crypts, but did not reject their existence. Only a description of a small pulmonary circle of blood circulation by Mikhail Servero in the XVI century and a complete, comprehensive accurate description of the blood and heart movement made by William Gorel in the XVII century, finally outlined this never detected the permeability of the deaf partition of the heart. So persistent were in their long-term driving unconfirmed by the life and experience of the hypothesis, expressed by the continued authorities of science.

Heart, according to Galen, is a body that gives the beginning to all the arteries of the body, as the liver gives the beginning of all veins. The arteries system, according to Galen, spreads the air in the body, which "roots of the arteries" is obtained from the lungs through the arterial vein, which is currently the pulmonary artery. He wrote that the air during her through it goes to the left atrium, then goes into the left ventricle and, finally, in the aorta. According to Galen, "When light expands, blood flows and fills all lung veins; When it is reduced, there is a blood sampling, which is why the constant blood movement is possible in the veins there and back. " This complex and confusing representation only in the XVII century received the right permission in the ingenious work of Ganeva on blood circulation. Galen carefully studied and described the walls of the arteries as structures, more thickened in comparison with the walls of the veins, which are equipped, in his opinion, the only one's own shell.

Galen in the composition "De Facultatibus Naturalibus" experimentally proved the error of the erasistraist, claimed that the arteries carry air, and the blood penetrates them after the dissection of their wall. Galen tied up from both sides the long segment of the artery and, cutting it, showed that it was not air, but blood.

Galen described the veins, arguing that they receive nutrients from the intestine and then provide them with the liver. Veins penetrate the liver through the gate - "porta" presented in the liver in the form of a transversely running gap. Galen believed that there is a connection, on modern terminology, "anastomosis", between the veins system and the arteries. He described the veins of the brain, which in modern anatomy retained his name.

The genetic section of the splash is most weakly described. The intestinal tube, although described by him built of several layers, but still inaccurately, the pack as if he describes something secondary to the development between the longest intestines of herbivores and more shouted in carnivorous animals.

Galen experimentally proved that when in the stomach of the animal "welding is over, the lower hole of the stomach opens and food is easily descended there (in the intestine), even accompanied by large number Kameshkov, nucleoli or other items unable to contact Hilus. This we can see on the animal, having calculated the transition of food down ... "In the digestion, the output from the stomach is reliably closed, and" ... the stomach tightly covers food is like the uterus worst the fruit, for it is not possible to find an empty place in the uterus nor in the stomach ... "

"When the welding came to an end, the gatekeeper opened and the stomach, like guts, discovered peristaltic movements."

According to Galen, from the stomach and intestines, the food cashem moves by the expelled force, which it correctly called the peristaltic movement; The term "peristaltike kinesis" belongs to Galen.

Galen intently studied the digestion process and said that it depends on the strength of the stomach. The stomach attracts, retains and changes the food substances.

The liver Galen considered the blood formation organ and described four shares in it, which is characteristic of the structure of the liver of animals. A gile bubble of a man, Galen, has two ducts: bubble and bile, and both of them, in his opinion, fall into the duodenum.

Bile Galen considers blood purification by the product; Yellow bile is a caustic liquid, which, falling in an excessive amount in the stomach, can destroy its walls and therefore erupts vomiting, and attending in normal quantity, ensures the removal of mucus from the digestive tract.

Galen's spleen told the auxiliary body involved in the processing of unclean blood. An unknown surplus in the form of black bile is distinguished with the participation of the spleen and enter the digestive tract, helping its knitting properties to reduce it and digestion.

Galen described the gland, marking its protective function. He recalled the gladiator operated on to them, who removed the gland from the wound. This patient Galen subsequently always felt sharply and warmed the belly of woolen clothing. Galen described the gland as a support organ for vessels. Galen act of breathing considered arbitrary. He argued that when singing and protection against caustic smoke or when immersed in water, a person can, without harm, to detain her breathing. Light with deep breath, expanding, fill the whole cavity of the chest. Galen investigated the structure of the respiratory tube. He described the respiratory apparatus to which the lads attributed, a harsh artery (trachea), bronchi, lungs and their vascular apparatus, heart, its left ventricle and vessel system, pulmonary arteries and veins.

Galen noted the presence of a moisturizing larynx apparatus in the form of a fatty and viscous mucus that protects the tight structures of the voice apparatus. He compared the structure of the larynx with the Flute structure. The study by Galen structure and larynx functions deserves much attention. Interesting the ratio between the respiratory movements and the pulse rate, which noted in his clinical and logical observations Galen. It is of great interest his treatise "On the types of pulse", which testifies to the sophisticated research ability of the author, about the rare gift of subtle surveillance. Galen wrote: "I did myself about the science of the pulse, but who after me wants to devote himself to this science in our pathetic age when no one recognizes the other God except wealth? But still, find a thousand at least one person who will study and understand my work, I will rather be rewarded for my efforts "(CUNN. EAST. DR. Honey., Vol. III, p. 872). Heart traffic is the alternation of systole and diastole, Galen diligently observed on living animals.

Galen was known to distinguish between arterial and venous blood. He believed that all the blood is spent on the food of the body parts without returning it, in the heart, while resuming in the body from the food juice of the liver. According to Galen, this blood passed from the liver to the right ventricle, here it was saturated with a pneumatic and in this form entered the artery for the blood supply to the "noble bodies". Galen believed that the pulsating force of the arteries is the main engine of blood by vessels. He paid the attention of the activities of a breast barrier, described the function of intercostal and cervical muscles involved in the act of breathing. Studying the act of breathing, Galen experimented a lot and found that the cross section of the spinal cord, made above the place of formation of the diaphragmal nerve, causes paralysis of the blessing barrier, thereby proving the participation of the spinal cord in the diaphragm function.

The structure of the lung, according to the descriptions of Galen, is made up of the branches of the respiratory throat, the pulmonary arteries, veins and air parenchyma, first described by the Erazotrath.

Galen exercised experiments on experimental animals with the removal of a part of the chest wall with intercostal muscles to prove that the lungs are not fragmented with a thoracic wall. He also studied the urogenital apparatus: the purpose of the kidneys, according to Galen, is to remove excess water from the blood and mainly from the vein hollow system. Small kidney tubules are filled with a watery liquid and isolated it from the body in the form of urine.

Galen on experience proved that not only in a living animal, but also the dead urine meets the obstacle to return from the bubble in the ureters. Thus, the inverse urine current is not possible, since it prevents the flaking of the valve, covered with the mucous membrane. This is a convincing and correct Galen experiment.

Studying the comparative morphology of Genitals, Galen expressed an interesting thought of parallelism in the structure of male and female bodies. In his opinion, the ovaries in women correspond to the eagles in men; uterus - scrotum; Inteni lips - extreme flesh. The bourgeois of the uterus of the uterus of a woman Galen rejected, but paired phallopy pipes considered it as if her start. In the treatise "About seed", he referred to his experience - the operation of removal of ovary in animals, which is not safe. He wrote: "It is unlikely that we are unlikely to follow the advice of those who would like to apply it on a person to remove some egg tumors." It is necessary to think that already in the 2nd century n. e. Operation of ovariectomy in some way practiced, and Galen warned its contemporaries in the era of the complete absence of antiseptics and asepsis from such an intervention, pointing to them on the greater danger and difficulty of such an operation.

Galen's female sexual tube considered as a delay in the development of a male sex tube. In his opinion, "Cold Nature", inherent in the female organism, on the views of that time, and causes this defective development. Galen's view deserves a great interest, although he does not correspond to modern views on the homology of the development of genitals. This view is all the more surprising that Galen did not notice the famous fact that the difference in the floors begins to manifest itself only from the fifth month of the intrauterine life of the human embryo. Without noting any of these gtlnotes of evolution, it is still a provo-zz.t parallelism of development.

Merit Galen is especially great in the field of study of the nervous system. Studying the nervous system, he successfully continued to develop the basic concepts of Alk Meon and Hippocrat, arguing that the center of thinking and feeling is the brain. The cerebellum and the spinal cord Galen considered the brain out of the brain as the PZ of some root. Galen's brain considered the source of the organism's motor ability, and not at all with iron, cooling mucus heat of the heart, as Aristotle considered. Wanting to prove it on the experiment, Galen Colopte and Zauren-Mal heart with forceps, it did not cause disorders of the sensitive sphere or consciousness. When he did such irritation in the brain, they always accompanied the lotteries of sensitivity and consciousness. Such an experiment Galen denied the concept of Aristotle that the heart is the center of the body's sensitivity.

Galen, exploring the substance of the brain, noted that the brain was softer in the front department and is denser in the rear section, in the cerebulisman and in the spinal cord, especially in its end.

Galen carefully described all brain departments: brain spike, side or front ventricles, medium ventricle, fourth ventricle, arch, employee for maintaining severity located above it parts of the brain P to protect ventricles from pressure on them. Galen noted between the rear legs of the brain. He mentioned a funnel, on which the wet iron is suspended - brain appendage.

Describing the spinal cord, Galen noticed: "Know that the spinal cord gives rise to all dense nerves, and its lower end is the most dense that the brain is the source of all soft nerves, and the center of its front part is designed for the safest; Finally, the place of the compound of the head and spinal cord is the beginning of the medium-sized nerve substance. " Galen noted the existence of the bodies of senses with the brain. He made a number of interesting experiences with the cut of the spinal cord at various levels of its stretch and tried to establish his role and importance in the motor acts of the body and in sensitive perceptions. Capturing the transverse spinal cord, Galen observed the loss of sensitivity and motor disorders in areas below the sections below. Running the spinal cord throughout its length, it has not noted disorders or sensitive, nor motor. Cut the spinal cord between the Atlanta and the population or between the Atlanta and the epiprephem, he watched the offensive of the animal death immediately after the rear.

Your wonderful conclusion made on the basis of an experiment on the "living" nervous system of the animal, Galen formulated as follows: "If you dissociate some kind of nerve or spinal cord, then part of the body underlying the sections and remaining due to the brain, retain still abilities, Outgoing from this beginning, meanwhile, as the whole part underlying the cut below is not able to more inform this organ either movement or sensitivity. Galen did a partial resection of the substance of the brain, even led the hemisphere of the brain, while the animal did not lose the ability of the movement and did not lose sensitivity. Paralysis he observed only when he opened the stomach brain; This was particularly sharply manifested in damage to the fourth ventricle of the brain, accompanied by a full paralysis of the animal.