Below the list useful for astronomy words. These terms were created by scientists to explain what is happening in outer space.

It is useful to know these words, without understanding their definitions it is impossible to study the universe and explained on the topics of astronomy. I hope the main astronomical terms will remain in your memory.

Absolute value - how much will the star be bright, if it is on the time of 32.6 light years of land.

Absolute zero - wax low of insection temperatures, -273.16 degrees Celsius

Acceleration is a change in speed (speed or direction).

Sky glow is naturally the glow of the night sky due to reactions occurring in the vertex layers of the Earth's atmosphere.

Albedo - albedo object Indicates how much light it reflects. The ideal reflector, such as a mirror, will have albedo 100. The moon has an albedo 7, the land has albedo 36.

An angstrom is a block that is used to measure the wavelength of light, and other electromagnetic emissions.

Ring - having a shape like a ring or forms a ring.

Apoastra - When two stars revolve the Wokropug Friend of the DPUG, then how far from each other can be (the maximum distance between the bodies).

Aflia - with an orbital movement of the object around the Sun, when the most remote position comes from the sun.

Apogee is the position of the object in the orbit of the Earth, when it is removed as much as possible from the ground.

Aerolite - stone meteorite.

The asteroid is a solid body, or a small planet, which comes around the sun.

Astrology is the belief that the support of stars and planets has an impact on the events of human destination. This does not have a scientific justification.

Astronomical unit - the distance of the Earth's Earth is usually written by AU.

Astrophysics - the use of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomy.

The atmosphere is the gas space surrounding the planet or other space object.

Atom is the smallest particle of any element.

Aurora (Northern Lights) - Beautiful lights over the polar regions, which are caused by the voltage of the particles of the Sun when interacting with the magnetic field of the Earth.

The axis - the imaginary direct on which the object rotates.

Radiation background - weak microwave radiation emanating from all directions from space. Eto, as believes, the high explosion faces.

Barcenter - the center of gravity of the Earth and the Moon.

Double stars - a star duet, which actually protects from two stars rotating each other.

Black hole - the area of \u200b\u200bspace around a very small and very massive object, in the coaster, the gravitational field is so strong that even the light cannot break out of it.

The car is a brilliant meteor that can explode during his descent through the atmosphere of the Earth.

Bolometer - detector sensitive detector.

Heavenly sphere - imaginary sphere surrounding the land. The term is used to help astronomers explain where objects are in the sky.

Cefeida - variable stars, their scientists are used to determine how remotely the galaxy is or as far from us is a cluster of stars.

Prior-linking (CCD) - sensitive image device, which replaces photographs in the firmware of astronomy branches.

Chromosphere is part of the solar atmosphere, it is visible at the time of complete solar eclipse.

The circumpolar star is a star that never comes, it can be viewed all year round.

Clusters are a group of stars or a group of galaxies that are interruption with each other by gravity.

Color index - a star color measure that tells scientists how hot is the surface of the star.

Coma is the nebula, surrounding the core of the comet.

Comet is small, frozen dust and gas masses, rotating around the sun.

The compound is a phenomenon at which the planet is approaching another planet or a star, and moves between another object and the body of the Earth.

Constellations - a group of stars who were given names from ancient astronomers.

The crown is emphasizing the sun atmosphere.

The coronograph is a telescope type designed to view the Sun Corona.

Space rays - high-speed particles, which reaches the land from the space.

Cosmology - study of the universe.

The day is the amount of time for which the land, rotating, makes the turnover of the sole axis.

The density is the compactness of matter.

Direct movements are objects moving in the same direction as the land - they move in direct movement, in contrast to the objects moving in the opposite direction - it is moving in retrograde movement.

Daily movement - visible to the movement of the sky from the way to the West, caused by the earth, moving from the West on the root.

Ash light - weak moon glow over the darkness of the earth. The light is caused by the reflection of the land.

Eclipse - When we see the object in the sky, the blocked shadow of another object or the shadow of the Earth.

Ecliptica is the path of the Soul, the Moon and Polanet, with whom everyone follows in the sky.

Ecosfera - the territory around the star, where the temperature allows you to exist.

Electron is a negative particle that rotates around the atom.

The element is a substance that cannot be fragmented further. There are 92 well-known elements.

Equinox - March 21 and September 22. Twice a year, when day and night are equal in time all over the world.

The second cosmic speed is the speed of the required object to break out of the height of the gravity of the other object.

Ecosphere is the outer part of the land atmosphere.

Flash - the effect of solar flares. Beautiful eruptions in the outside of the sun atmosphere.

Galaxy is a group of stars, gases and dust, which are held together under the action of gravity.

Gamma is an extremely short-wave energetic electromagnetic radiation.

Geocentric - simply means that the earth is in the center. People are accustomed to believe that the universe is a geocentric; The earth for them was the center of the Universe.

Geophysics - Study of the Earth using physics.

Hi area - cloud of neutral hydrogen.

Neither the region is a cloud of ionized hydrogen (the area of \u200b\u200bthe emission nebula of the hot plasma).

The Herzschprung-Russell diagram is a diagram that helps scientists to understand various types of stars.

Permanent Hubble - the ratio between the distance from the object and the speed with which it is removed from us. Then the object moves the faster than the remotely it becomes from us.

Planets, orbit less earthly, Mercury and Venus, are closer to the Soul, than the Earth, they call the lower planets.

Ionosphere - the area of \u200b\u200bthe Earth's atmosphere.

Kelvin - temperature measurement is often used in astronomy. 0 degrees Kelvin is -273 degrees Celsius and -459.4 degrees Fahrenheit.

Capler's laws - 1. Planets move to elliptical orbits with the sun in one of the focus. 2. Imaginary line connecting the center of the planet with the center of the sun. 3. The time required by the planet in the orbit of the Sun.

Kirkwood gaps - regions in the belt of asteroids, where there are almost no asteroids. This is related to the fact that the Giant Jupiter changes the lips of the object, which is included in these areas.

The light year is the distance that the beam of the Light is doing for one year. This is an example 6,000,000,000,000 (9,660,000,000,000 km) miles.

The limb is the edge of any object in outer space. The zone of the moon, for example.

Local group - a group of two dozen galaxies. This is a group, our galaxy belongs to the kit.

Lunation - a period between new moon. 29 days 12 hours 44 min.

The magnetic is a region of an object of an object, where the effect of the magnetic field of the object can be felt.

The weight is not the same thing, what weight, having a mass of the object helps determine how much it will weigh.

Meteor is a falling star, these are dust particles that are part of the Earth's atmosphere.

Meteorite is an object from outer space, such as rock, which falls to the ground and landing on its surface.

Meteoroids are any small object in outer space, such as dust or cliffs.

Micrometeorites are an extremely small skit. They are so small that when they fall into the atmosphere of the earth, they do not create a star effect.

Milky Way is our galaxy. (Loading "Galaxy" actually means the Milky Way of Po-Greek).

Small Planet - Asteroid

The molecule is a group of atoms, connected with each other.

Several stars - a group of stars that rotate each other.

Nadir is a point in the heavenly sphere, directly below the observer.

Nebula - gas and dust cloud.

Neutrino is a very small particle, not having a mass or charge.

Neutron star - remnants of the dead stars. They are incredibly compact and rotate very quickly, some with spin 100 times per second.

The novelty is a star that suddenly flashes before disappear again - the flash is many times stronger than its original brightness.

Earth spheroid - planet, which is not perfect round, because it is wider in the middle, and in short on top of the bottom.

Eclipse - coating of one celestial body to others.

Opposition - When the planet costs exactly opposite the Sun, so the land is between them.

Orbit - the path of one object around the other.

Ozone is an area in the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs many of the fatal emissions coming from space.

Pararallaks - an object shift when it is considered from two different places. For example, if you close one eye and look at your thumbs in your nail, and then switch your eyes, you will see everything in the backstage mode and back. Scientists use it to measure the distance to the stars.

Parsek - 3.26 light years

Halfing - a bright part of the shadow is on the edge of the shade.

Periastra - when two stars that rotate around each other are at the nearest point.

Perige - the point in the orbit of the object around the Earth when it is closer to the ground.

Perihelium - when the object rotates around the sun in the nearest point of the sun

Perturbations - riots in the orbit of the celestial object caused by the gravitational attraction of another object.

Phases - Obviously, changing the shape of the Moon, Mercury and Venus because of how much sunny side overlooking the Earth.

Photosphere - Bright Sun Surface

Planet - an object moving around the star.

Planetary Nebula - gas nebula surrounding the star.

Precession - the Earth behaves like a top. Her poles spinning in circles cause poles to a point in various directions for a long time. It takes 25,800 years for Earth to complete one precession.

Own movement is the movement of the stars in the sky, as can be seen from the ground. The closest stars have a higher one's own movement, the more remote, as in our car, it seems that facilities, such as road signs, are moving faster than distant mountains and trees.

Proton - elementary particle in the center of the atom. Protons have a positive charge.

The quasar is a very distant and very bright object.

Shining - Square in the sky during a meteorite rain.

Radiogalaxies - galaxies, which are extremely powerful radiators of radio emission.

Red displacement - when the object moves away from the ground, the light from this object is stretched, why it looks more red.

Rotate - when something is moving in a circle around another object, like the moon around the earth.

Rotate - When the rotating object has at least one fixed plane.

Saros (draconic period) - time interval, out of 223 synodic months (approximately 6585,3211 days), after which the eclipses of the moon and the sun are repeated as usual. Saros cycle - a period of 18 years 11.3 days, in which eclipses are repeated.

Satellite is a small object in orbit. There are many electronic objects that rotate around the Earth.

Flicker - flickering stars. Thanks to the atmosphere of the Earth.

The view is the state of the atmosphere of the Earth at a certain point in time. If the sky is clean, astronomers say that there is a good view.

Selenography - study of the surface of the moon.

Seyfert galaxies - galaxies with small bright centers. Many Galaxies of Seyferts are good sources of radio waves.

Falling star - light into the atmosphere as a result of the fall of the meteorite on the ground.

Sideric period - a period of time that an object in space takes to complete one full turn in relation to stars.

Solar system - a system of planets and other objects in the orbit of the star sun.

Sunny wind is a steady flow of particles from the Sun in all directions.

Solstice - June 22 and December 22. The time of year, when the day is either the shortest, or the longest one - depending on where you are.

Spikula - the main elements, up to 16,000 kilometers in diameter, in the chromosphere of the Sun.

Stratosphere - Earth's atmosphere level from about 11-64 km above sea level.

The star is an independently luminous object that shines through the energy produced in nuclear reactions inside its kernel.

Supernova star - super bright star explosion. Supernova can produce the same amount of energy per second as the entire galaxy.

Sunshirt - an ancient tool used to determine the time.

Solar spots are dark stains on the surface of the sun.

Exterior planets are planets that lie on from the Sun than the Earth.

The synchronous satellite is an artificial satellite, which moves around the Earth at the same speed, with which earth rotates, so that it is always in the same part of the Earth.

Synodic circulation period - the time required object in space to reappear at the same point for two other objects, such as land and sun

Sizigi - the position of the Moon on its orbit, in a new or full phase.

Terminator - line between the day and at night on any celestial object.

Thermocouple - the device used to measure very small heat.

Slowing time - when you approach the speed of light, time slows down and the mass increases (there is such a theory).

Trojan asteroids - asteroids rotating around the sun, following the orbit of Jupiter.

The troposphere is the lower part of the Earth's atmosphere.

The shadow is the dark inside of the solar shadow.

Variable stars - stars that fluctuate in brightness.

Zenit - he is right above your head in the night sky.

1. Theoretical telescope resolution:

Where λ - average light wavelength (5,5 · 10 -7 m), D. - diameter of the telescope lens, or, where D. - The diameter of the lens of the telescope in millimeters.

2. Increased telescope:

Where F. - focal length of lens, f. - focal length of the eyepiece.

3. Height shone in climax:

the height of shone in the upper climax, cultifying south of Zenith ( d. < j.):

where j. - latitude of observation location, d. - declination of the shone;

the height of the shone in the upper climax, cultifying north of Zenith ( d. > j.):

where j. - latitude of observation location, d. - declination of the shone;

the height of the shone in the lower climax:

where j. - latitude of observation location, d. - Shone declination.

4. Astronomical refraction:

approximate formula for calculating the angle of refraction, expressed in the states of the arc (at a temperature of + 10 ° C and atmospheric pressure of 760 mm. Hg. Art.):

where z. - Anti-aircraft distance Luminous (for z<70°).

starry time:

Where a. - Direct climb of any shone, t. - his clock corner;

average solar time (local average):

T. M \u003d. T.  + h.where T. - True sunny time h.- time equation;

world time:

WhereL is the longitude of the point with local average time T. m, expressed in-hour T. 0 - World time at this moment;

explanatory time:

Where T. 0 - World time; n. - number of the time zone (Greenwich n.\u003d 0, for Moscow n.\u003d 2, for Krasnoyarsk n.=6);

maternity time:

or

6. Formulas connecting the Sideric (Star) period of conversion of the planet T. With the synodic period of its appeal S.:

for upper planets:

for the lower planets:

where T. Å - the star period of the appeal of the Earth around the Sun.

7. The third law of Kepler:

where T 1 and T 2. - periods of circulation planets, a. 1 I. a. 2 - large semi-axes of their orbits.

8. The law of world gravity:

Where m 1. and m 2. - masses of attractive material points, r. - Distance between them, G. - gravitational constant.

9. Third Generalized Caplera Law:

where m 1. and m 2. - masses of two mutually attracting bodies, r. - Distance between their centers, T. - the period of circulation of these bodies around the common center of mass, G. - gravitational constant;

for system Sun and two planets:

where T 1 and T 2. - Sideric (star) periods of circulation planets, M. - the mass of the sun, m 1. and m 2. - mass planets, a. 1 I. a. 2 - High semi-axes orbits planets;

for systems sun and planet, planet and satellite:

where M. - the mass of the sun; m. 1 - the mass of the planet; m. 2 - mass of the satellite of the planet; T. 1 I. a 1. - The period of circulation of the planet around the sun and the large part of its orbit; T. 2 I. a 2. - the period of the appeal of the satellite around the planet and the large part of its orbit;

for M. >> m. 1, A. m. 1 >> m. 2 ,

10. Linear body speed in parabolic orbit (parabolic speed):

where G. M. - the mass of the central body, r. - radius-vector of selected point of parabolic orbit.

11. Linear body speed on elliptical orbit in favorite point:

where G. - gravitational constant, M. - the mass of the central body, r. - radius-vector elected point of elliptical orbit, a. - Big semi-axes of elliptical orbit.

12. Linear body motion speed over a circular orbit (circular speed):

where G. - gravitational constant, M. - the mass of the central body, R. - radius of orbits, v. P - Parabolic speed.

13. Eccentricity of the elliptical orbit, which characterizes the degree of deviation of the ellipse from the circle:

where c. - Distance from focus to the center of the orbit, a. - Big fear of the orbit, b. - Small fear of the orbit.

14. Communication of the distances of the pericenter and the apocenter with a large half-axle and eccentricity of the elliptical orbit:

Where r. P - distances from focus, in which the central heavenly body is located, to the pericenter, r. A - distances from the focus, in which the central heavenly body is located, to the apocenter, a. - Big fear of the orbit, e. - Eccentricity orbit.

15. Distance to Lamp (within the solar system):

where R. ρ 0 - horizontal parallax shone, expressed in the seconds of the arc,

or, where D. 1 I. D. 2 - distances to Lamp, ρ 1 I. ρ 2 - their horizontal parallaxes.

16. The radius of the shone:

Where ρ - the angle under which the radius of the disc from the earth is visible (angular radius), R. Å - Equatorial land radius, ρ 0 - Horizontal pararallax SveTIl.m - Visible Star Value, R. - distance to stars in parrseca.

20. The law of Stephen Boltzmann:

ε \u003d σt. 4, where ε - energy emitted per unit of time from the surface of the surface, T. - Temperature (in Kelvin), and σ - Permanent Stephen Boltzmann.

21. Law of Wine:

Where λ max - wavelength, which accounts for the maximum emission of absolutely black body (in centimeters), T. - Absolute temperature in Kelvin.

22. Law of Hubble:

where v. - Raduing galaxy removal rate, c. - speed of light, Δ λ - Doppler shift of lines in the spectrum, λ - wavelength of the radiation source, z. - Red shift, R.- distance to Galaxy in Mega Parts, H. - Permanent Hubble, equal to 75 km / (with × MPK).

1.2 Some important concepts and formulas from general astronomy

Before proceeding with the description of the elaborate-variable stars, which this work is devoted to, consider some basic concepts that we need in the future.

The starry magnitude of the heavenly shine is the measure of his brilliance taken in astronomy. The brilliance is the intensity of light, reaching an observer or illumination, created on the radiation receiving (eye, photographic plane, photomultiplier, etc.) The gloss is proportional to the square of the distance separating the source and observer.

Star magnitude M and gloss E are interconnected by the formula:

In this formula E I - the stars of the star M i -i star magnitude, E K is the star of the star M k-and starry magnitude. Using this formula, it is not difficult to see that the stars of the first star magnitude (1 m) brighter than the stars of the sixth star magnitude (6 m), which are visible at the limit of the visibility of the unarmed eye exactly 100 times. This is this circumstance and formed the basis for the construction of the scale of star values.

Progrigimating formula (1) and taking into account that LG 2,512 \u003d 0.4, we obtain:

, (1.2)

(1.3)

The last formula shows that the difference in star values \u200b\u200bis directly proportional to the logarithm of the relationship of gloss. The minus sign in this formula says that the star value increases (decreases) with a decrease in (increasing) shine. The difference in star quantities can be expressed not only as a whole, but also fractional number. With the help of high-precision photoelectric photometers, it is possible to determine the difference in star values \u200b\u200bwith an accuracy of 0.001 m. The accuracy of visual (eye-eye) estimates of the experimental observer is about 0.05 m.

It should be noted that formula (3) allows not to calculate non-star values, but their differences. To build the scale of star values, you need to select some zero item (beginning of reference) of this scale. You can approximately be considered such a zero-point (A lyra) - a star zero star. There are stars that are negative from the stars. For example, Sirius (A large PSA) is the brightest star of the earth's sky and has a star magnitude -1.46 m.

The brilliance of the star, estimated by the eye, is called visual. It corresponds to the star magnitude denoted by M u. or m vis. . The brilliance of the stars, estimated by their diameter of the image and the degree of blaracing on the photoflastic (photographic effect) is called photographic. It corresponds to the photographic star magnitude M pg or M fot. The difference C \u003d M pg - M fot, depending on the color of the star, is called the color indicator.

There are several conditionally accepted starry systems, of which the levels of star quantities u, b and V. The letter U is denoted by ultraviolet star values, B-blue (close to photographic), V - yellow (close to visual). Accordingly, two color indicators are determined: u - b and b - v, which for pure white stars are equal to zero.

Theoretical information about the elaborate-variable stars

2.1 Opening history and classification of elaborate stars

The first elaborate-variable star Algol (B Perseus) was opened in 1669. Italian Mathematics and Astronomer Montanari. For the first time, she studied at the end of the XVIII century. English Astronomy Lover John Goodrike. It turned out that the single-star Person's single star B visible to the naked eye is a multiple system that is not divided even with telescopic observations. Two of the stars included in the system are treated around the common center of masses in 2 days 20 hours and 49 minutes. At certain points in time, one of the stars included in the system closes another to the observer, which causes a temporary weakening of the total gloss of the system.

Changes in the gloss of Algol, which is shown in Fig. one

This schedule is built according to accurate photoelectric observations. Two glacial weakening are visible: a deep primary minimum is the main eclipse (the bright component is hidden behind the weaker) and a slight weakening of the brilliance - a secondary minimum, when a stronger component eclipses more weak.

These phenomena are repeated after 2,8674 days (or 2 days 20 hours 49 minutes).

From the graph of the gloss change seen (Fig. 1), that Algol immediately after reaching the main minimum (the smallest gloss value) begins it. This means that private eclipse occurs. In some cases, a complete eclipse can also be observed, which is characterized by preserving the minimum gloss value of the variable in the main minimum for a certain period of time. For example, in the elastic-variable star U Cepheva, which is available to observations in strong binoculars and amateur telescopes, in the main minimum duration of the full phase is about 6h.

Carefully examined the chart of changing the gloss of Algol, it can be found that between the main and secondary minima glitter the star does not remain constant, as it could seem at first glance, but slightly changes. This phenomenon can be explained as follows. Outside the eclipse to the Earth, the light comes from both components of the double system. But both components are close to each other. Therefore, a weaker component (often large in size), illuminated by a bright component, dispels the radiation that falls on it. Obviously, the greatest amount of scattered radiation will reach the earth's observer at the moment when the weak component is located for bright, i.e. Near the moment of the secondary minimum (theoretically, this should come directly at the time of the secondary minimum, but the total brilliance of the system sharply decreases due to the eclipse of one of the components).

This effect is called the re-emission effect. On the graph, it is manifested by a gradual approach of the overall brilliance of the system as it approaches the secondary minimum and descending the gloss, which is symmetrically increases its increase relative to the secondary minimum.

In 1874 Hoodrike opened the second elaborate star - b Lyra. It changes the brilliance relatively slowly with a period of 12 days 21 hours 56 minutes (12,914). Unlike Algol, the shine curve has a smoother form. (Fig.2) This is explained by the proximity of the component to each other.

Tidal forces arising in the system make both stars stretch along the line connecting their centers. Components are no longer ball, but ellipsoidal. With an orbital movement, the discs components having an elliptical shape smoothly change its area, which leads to a continuous change in the gloss of the system even outside the eclipse.

In 1903 An elaborate variable w was discovered by a large bear, in which the treatment period is about 8 hours (0.3336834 days). During this time, two minima is observed or almost equal depths (Fig. 3). Studying the stars shine curve shows that the components are almost equal in size and almost touch the surfaces.

In addition to the stars of the Algol type, B Lira and W Bolshoiy Big Mars have exist more rare objects that also refer to the elaborate-variable stars. This is the ellipsoidal stars that rotate around the axis. Changing the area of \u200b\u200bthe disk causes small shine changes.

Hydrogen, while the stars with a temperature of about 6 thousand k. lines of ionized calcium, located on the border of the visible and ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Note that this kind of I has a spectrum of our sun. The sequence of the spectra of stars, resulting in a continuous change in the temperature of their surface layers, is indicated by the following letters: O, B, A, F, G, K, M, from the hottest to ...

The lines will not be observed (due to the weakness of the spectrum of the satellite), but the line of the main star spectrum will be fluent in the same way as in the first case. Periods of changes occurring in spectrals of spectral-double stars are obvious to the periods of their appeal, are quite different. The shortest of the known periods of 2.4CH (G of a small bear), and the longest - dozens of years. For...

Astronomy tickets 11 class

Ticket number 1.

Visible movements shone, as a result of their own movement in space, the rotation of the Earth and its appeal around the Sun.

The land performs complex movements: rotates around its axis (T \u003d 24 hours), moves around the Sun (T \u003d 1 year), rotates with the galaxy (T \u003d 200 thousand years). It can be seen that all observations made from the ground are distinguished by the seeming trajectories. The planets move through the sky, then from the east to the west (direct movement), then from the west to the east (digital movement). Moments of direction shift are called standing. If you apply this path to the card, it turns out the loop. The loops dimensions are the less, the larger the distance between the planet and the ground. Planets are divided into the lower and top (bottom - inside the earth orbit: Mercury, Venus; Upper: Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto). All these planets also addate the same land around the Sun, but, thanks to the movement of the Earth, the loop-like motion of the planets can be observed. Mutual locations of the planets regarding the sun and land are called the configurations of the planets.

Planet configurations , Split. geometrich. The location of the planets towards the Sun and Earth. Some positions of the planets, visible from the Earth and measured relative to the Sun, are special. titles. On Ill. V. - Inner Planet, I- External Planet, E - Land, S. - The sun. When internal. The planet lies on one straight line with the sun, she is in connection. K.P. EV 1 S and ESV. 2 called lower and upper connections respectively. Externally Planet I is in the upper connection when it lies on one straight line with the sun ( ESI 4) and in confrontation When it lies in the direction opposite to the Sun (I 3 ES). The yield between the directions on the planet and the sun with a vertex on Earth, for example. I 5 ES, called elongation. For internal Planets Max, elongation occurs when angle EV 8 is 90 °; For external planets are possible elongation ranging from 0 ° ESI 4) to 180 ° (I 3 ES). When the elongation is 90 °, they say that the planet is in quadrature (I 6 ES, I 7 ES).

The period during which the planet makes turn around the sun in orbit, is called a ciderial (star) circulation period - T, the period of time between two identical configurations - the synodic period - S.

Planets move around the sun in one direction and make a complete turn around the Sun over the time interval \u003d Sidericional period

For inner planets

For external planets

S - Sideric period (relative to the stars), T - the synodic period (between phases), T Å \u003d 1 year.

Comets and meteorite bodies move through elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories.

Calculation of the distance to the Galaxy based on the Hubble Law.

H \u003d 50 km / sec * MPK - Permanent Hubble

Ticket number 2.

Principles for the definition of geographical coordinates on astronomical observations.

There are 2 geographic coordinates: geographic latitude and geographic longitude. Astronomy as practical science allows you to find these coordinates. The height of the world's pole over the horizon is equal to the geographical latitude of the observation location. Approximately geographical latitude can be determined by measuring the height of the polar star, because It comes from the North Pole of the world about 1 0. You can determine the latitude of the observation location in the height of the luminaries in the upper climax ( Culmination - the moment of the passage of shone through the meridian) by the formula:

j \u003d D ± (90 - h), depending on the south or north, it cultures from the zenith. H is the height of the shining, D - decline, J - latitude.

Geographical longitude is the second coordinate, counted from the zero Greenwich Meridian to the east. The earth is divided into 24 time zones, the difference in time is 1 hour. The difference of local times is equal to the difference of longitude:

T λ 1 - T λ 2 \u003d λ 1 - λ 2 T.O., having learned the difference between times in two points, the longitude of one of which is known, you can determine the longitude of another item.

The local time - This is solar time in this place of the Earth. At each point, the local time is different, so people live at the best time, i.e., by the time of the average meridian of this belt. Date change line runs in the East (Bering Strait).

Calculation of the temperature of the star based on data on its luminosity and sizes.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 3.

The reasons for changing the phases of the moon. The conditions of the offensive and the frequency of solar and lunar eclipses.

Phase In astronomy, the phase change occurs due to periodic. Changes in the conditions of illumination of celestial bodies in relation to the observer. F. Luna is due to a change in the mutual position of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun, as well as the fact that the moon shines the light reflected from it. When the moon is located between the sun and the ground on a straight line, connecting them, an unlit part of the lunar surface is drawn to the ground, so we do not see it. This F. - new moon. After 1-2 days, the moon moves away from this straight line, and a narrow lunar sickle is visible from the ground. During the new moon, the part of the moon, Kraya is not covered with straight sunshine, still visible in the dark sky. This phenomenon was called ash light. After a week, F. comes first quarter: The illuminated part of the moon is half the disk. Then comes full moon - The moon is again on the line connecting the sun and earth, but by Dr. side of the Earth. Visible illuminated full disk of the moon. Then the descending part begins and comes last quarter, those. Again, you can observe the illuminated half of the disk. Full period of shift F. Moon is called a synodic month.

Eclipse , Astronomical phenomenon, with a k-ROM, one celestial body completely or partially closes Dr. or the shadow of one body falls on dr. Solar 3. It happens when the earth falls into the shadow dropped by the moon, and the luna - when the moon falls into the shadow of the Earth. The shadow of the moon during sunny 3. consists of a central shadow and the surrounding one. Under favorable conditions, full lunar 3. May last 1 hour. 45 min. If the moon is not fully included in the shadow, the observer on the night side of the earth will see a private lunar 3. The angular diameters of the sun and the moon are almost the same, so complete solar 3. lasts only a few. minutes. When the moon is in suitogee, its angular sizes are slightly less than the sun. Sunny 3. It may occur if the line connecting the centers of the Sun and the Moon crosses the earth's surface. The diameters of the lunar shadow when falling on the ground can reach several. hundred kilometers. The observer sees that the dark lunar disc did not completely closed the sun, leaving his edge open in the form of a bright ring. This is so-called. Ring solar 3. If the angular dimensions of the moon are greater than the sun, the observer in the neighborhood of the point of intersection of the line connecting their centers with the earth's surface, will see full sunny 3. Because The Earth revolves around his axis, the moon - around the earth, and the Earth - around the Sun, the lunar shadow will quickly slide on the earth's surface from the point where she fell on it, to others, where she leaves her, and hesitates on earth * a full or ring lane 3. Private 3. You can observe when the moon lights up only a part of the sun. Time, duration and picture of solar or lunar 3. depend on the geometry of the earth-moon-sun system. Because of the tilt of the lunar orbit relatively * ELLIPTICS Solar and lunar 3. It does not occur in every new moon or full moon. Comparison of prediction 3. with observations allows you to clarify the theory of movement of the moon. Since the geometry of the system is almost exactly repeated every 18 years of 10 days, 3. It occur with this period, called Saros. Registration 3. Since ancient times, it allows you to check the effects of tides on the lunar orbit.

Definition of star map coordinates.

Ticket number 4.

Features of the daily movement of the Sun on various geographic latitudes at different times of the year.

Consider the one-year movement of the sun on the celestial sphere. The full turn around the Sun land commits a year, for one day the sun shifts on the ecliptic from the west to the east about 1 °, and for 3 months - 90 °. However, it is important at this stage that with the movement of the Sun on the ecliptic is accompanied by a change in its declination in the range from Δ \u003de (winter solstice) to δ \u003d + E (summer solstice), where E is the angle of inclination of the earth's axis. Therefore, during the year, the location of the daily parallel of the Sun is changing. Consider the average latitude of the northern hemisphere.

During the passage of the Spring Equinox Point (α \u003d 0 h), at the end of March, the decline of the sun is 0 °, so on this day the sun is almost in the heavenly equator, goes back in the east, rises in the upper climax to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ And comes in the West. Since the Heavenly Equator divides the heavenly sphere in half, then the sun is half a day over the horizon, half - under it, i.e. The day is equal to night, which is reflected in the title "Equinox". At the time of equinox, the tangent to the ecliptic at the site of finding the Sun is inclined to the equator to the maximum angle equal to E, therefore, the rate of increasing the decline of the Sun at this time is also maximum.

After the spring equinox, the decline of the Sun increases rapidly, so every day the whole most of the daily parallels of the Sun turns out to be above the horizon. The sun goes back all before, rises in the upper climax higher and comes later. The points of the sunrise and commerce are shifted to the north every day, and the day is extended.

However, the angle of inclination towards the ecliptic at the location of the Sun is reduced every day, and with it decreases the rate of inclination. Finally, at the end of June the sun reaches the northern point of the ecliptic (α \u003d 6 h, δ \u003d + e). By this moment, it rises in the upper climax to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ + E, goes back to about northeast, comes in the north-west, and the duration of the day reaches the maximum value. At the same time, the daily increase in the height of the sun in the upper climax is stopped, and the midday sun "stops" in its movement to the north. Hence the name "Summer Solstice".

After that, the decline of the Sun begins to decrease - first very slowly, and then faster. It goes back with each day later, it comes earlier, the points of sunrise and enter are moving back, south.

By the end of September, the Sun reaches the second intersection point of ecliptic with the equator (α \u003d 12 hours), and the equinox comes again, now is already autumn. Again, the rate of change in the decline of the Sun reaches the maximum, and it quickly shifts to the south. The night is becoming longer than the day, and every day the height of the sun in the upper climax decreases.

By the end of December, the Sun reaches the most southern point of the ecliptic (α \u003d 18 h) and its movement to the south is stopped, it stops again. This is a winter solstice. The sun rises in almost the southeast, comes in the southwest, and at noon rises in the south to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ - e.

And after all starts first - the declination of the sun increases, the height in the upper climax grows, the day is lengthened, the points of sunrise and enter are shifted to the north.

Due to the scattering of light, the earth's atmosphere continues to be light and some time after sunset. This period is called twilight. At the depth of the sun dive under the horizon, dusk civil (-8 ° -12 °) and astronomical (H\u003e -18 °), at the end of which the brightness of the night sky remains approximately constant.

In summer, with d \u003d + e, the height of the sun in the lower climax is equal to H \u003d φ + E - 90 °. Therefore, the north of a latitude of ~ 48 ° .5 In the summer solstice, the sun in the lower climax is immersed under the horizon less than 18 °, and summer nights become light due to astronomical twilight. Similarly, at φ\u003e 54 ° .5 in the summer solstice, the height of the Sun H\u003e -12 ° - the navigation twilight is all night (Moscow comes into this zone, where it does not get dark for three months a year - from the beginning of May until the beginning of August). Another north, with φ\u003e 58 ° .5, in the summer the civil twilight is no longer stopped (there is a St. Petersburg with his famous "white nights").

Finally, on the latitude φ \u003d 90 ° - the daily parallel of the Sun during the solstice touches the horizon. This latitude is the northern polar circle. Another north of the sun for a while in the summer does not go beyond the horizon - the polar day comes, and in winter - the polar night comes.

And now consider more southern latitudes. As already mentioned, the south of the latitude φ \u003d 90 ° - E - 18 ° is always dark. With a further movement to the South, the Sun at any time of the year rises higher and higher, and the difference between parts of its daily parallels, which is above and under the horizon, is reduced. Accordingly, the duration of the day and night even during the solstice varies less and less. Finally, on the latitude j \u003d e, the daily parallel of the Sun for the summer solstice will be held through Zenit. This latitude is called the Northern Tropic, at the time of the summer solstice in one of the points on this latitude the sun is exactly in the zenith. Finally, at the equator, the daily parallels of the Sun are always divided by the horizon into two equal parts, that is, the day there is always equal to the night, and the sun happens in the zenith during equinoxies.

To the south of the equator, everything will be similar to the above described, only most of the year (and the south of the southern tropic - always) the upper climax of the Sun will occur north of the zenith.

Guidance on a given object and focusing telescope .

Ticket number 5.

1. Principle of operation and purpose of the telescope.

Telescope , Astronomical device for observing heavenly shining. A well-designed telescope is able to collect electromagnetic radiation in different spectrum ranges. In astronomy, the optical telescope is designed to increase the image and collecting light from weak sources, especially invisible to the naked eye, because Compared to it, it is capable of collecting more light and provide high angular resolution, so in an enlarged image you can see more details. In the telescope-refractor, a large lens is used, collecting and focusing light, and the image is considered using an eyepiece consisting of one or more lenses. The main problem in the design of refractors telescopes is chromatic aberration (color border around the image created by a simple lens due to the fact that the light of various wavelengths focuses at different distances.). It can be eliminated using a combination of convex and concave lenses, but the lenses are more than a certain limit size (about 1 meter in diameter) cannot be made. Therefore, at present, preference is given to the reflectors telescopes, in which a mirror is used as a lens. The first telescope reflector invented Newton in his scheme called newton system. Now there are several methods of observing the image: Newton systems, CASEGREEN (the position of the focus is convenient for registration and analysis of light using other devices, such as a photometer or spectrometer), kud (the scheme is very convenient, when bulky equipment is required for analysis), Maxutova ( Soz. Menisk), Schmidt (applies when it is necessary to make large-scale sky reviews).

Along with optical telescopes, there are telescopes that collect electromagnetic radiation in other bands. For example, various types of radio telescopes are widespread (with a parabolic mirror: fixed and full-turn; type Ratan-600; syphase; radio interferometers). There are also telescopes for registering X-ray and gamma radiation. Since the latter is absorbed by the earth's atmosphere, X-ray telescopes are usually installed on satellites or air probes. Gamma-astronomy uses telescopes located on satellites.

Calculation of the conversion period of the planet based on the third law of Kepler.

T s \u003d 1

a z \u003d 1 Astronomical unit

1 parsek \u003d 3.26 light year \u003d 206265 a. e. \u003d 3 * 10 11 km.

Ticket number 6.

Methods for determining distances to the bodies of the solar system and their size.

At first, the distance is determined to some available point. This distance is called the basis. The corner under which the Basis is visible from the inaccessible place is called pararallax . The horizontal parallax call the angle under which the radius of the Earth is visible from the planet, perpendicular to the beam of view.

p² - Pararallax, R² - angular radius, R - the radius of the Earth, R is the radius of the shone.

Radar method. It lies in the fact that a powerful short-term impulse is sent to the heavenly body, and then the reflected signal is taken. The speed of propagation of radio waves is equal to the speed of light in vacuum: known. Therefore, if you accurately measure the time that the signal was required to go to the celestial body and return back, it is easy to calculate the desired distance.

Radar observations make it possible to determine the distances to the celestial bodies of the solar system with great accuracy. This method refined distances to the Moon, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter.

Laser moon location. Soon after the invention of powerful light radiation sources - optical quantum generators (lasers) - experiences were carried out on the laser location of the moon. The laser location method is similar to radar, however, the measurement accuracy is significantly higher. Optical location makes it possible to determine the distance between the selected points of the lunar and the earth surface with an accuracy of centimeters.

To determine the size of the Earth, the distance between two points located on one meridian is determined, then the length of the arc l. , corresponding 1 ° - n. .

To determine the sizes of the bodies of the solar system, you can measure the angle under which they are visible to the earth observer - the angular radius of the luminaries R and the distance to the shining D.

Considering P 0 - horizontal pararallax shining and that the angles p 0 and R are small,

Determining the luminosity of the star based on data on its size and temperature.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 7.

1. Opportunities for spectral analysis and nonathmapper observations to study the nature of celestial bodies.

The decomposition of electromagnetic radiation by wavelengths in order to study them is called spectroscopy. Analysis of the spectra is the main method of studying astronomical objects used in astrophysics. The study of spectra gives information about temperature, speed, pressure, chemical composition and other esstricted properties of astronomical objects. According to the absorption spectrum (more precisely, according to the presence of certain lines in the spectrum), one can judge the chemical composition of the star atmosphere. By the intensity of the spectrum, you can determine the temperature of the stars and other bodies:

l MAX T \u003d B, B - constant wine. Much of the star can be found using the Doppler effect. In 1842, it found that the wavelength λ, adopted by the observer, is related to the wavelength of the radiation source by the ratio: where V is the projection of the source speed on the beam. Outdoor law received the name of the Doppler law :. The offset of the lines in the spectrum of the star relative to the spectrum of comparison in the Red Party says that the star is removed from us, the shift in the purple side of the spectrum is that the star is approaching us. If the lines in the spectrum change periodically, the star has a satellite and they turn around the common center of mass. The Doppler effect also makes it possible to estimate the speed of stars. Even when the radiating gas does not have a relative movement, the spectral lines emitted by individual atoms will be shifted relative to the laboratory value due to an erratic thermal motion. For the total mass of gas, this will be expressed in the broadening of the spectral lines. At the same time, the square of the Doppler's width of the spectral line is proportional to the temperature. Thus, the width of the spectral line can be judged by the temperature of the emitting gas. In 1896, the Dutch physicist Zeeman was opened the effect of splitting spectrum lines in a strong magnetic field. With this effect now it became possible to "measure" cosmic magnetic fields. A similar effect (it is called the Effect of Stark) is observed in the electric field. It manifests itself when a strong electric field occurs in the star briefly.

The earthly atmosphere delays a part of the radiation running from space. The visible light, passing through it, is also distorted: the air movement blurs the image of the celestial bodies, and the stars flicker, although in fact their brightness is unchanged. Therefore, from the middle of the 20th century, astronomers began to observe from space. Out of atmospheric telescopes are collected and analyzed X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared and gamma radiation. The first three can be studied only outside the atmosphere, the last partially reaches the surface of the Earth, but is mixed with IR planet itself. Therefore, it is preferable to carry out infrared telescopes into space. X-ray radiation reveals in the Universe region, where energy (for example, black holes) is particularly rapidly highlighted, as well as objects invisible in other rays, such as pulsars. Infrared telescopes allow you to explore thermal sources hidden for optics, in a large temperature range. Gamma-astronomy allows you to detect sources of electron-positron annihilation, i.e. Sources of large energies.

2. Definition on the star map The decline of the sun for a given day and calculating its height at noon.

h - Light height

Ticket number 8.

The most important directions and objectives of the study and development of outer space.

The main problems of modern astronomy:

There is no solution to many private problems of cosmogony:

· How the moon was formed, how rings were formed around planets-giants, why Venus rotates very slowly and in the opposite direction;

In Star Astronomy:

· There is no detailed model of the Sun, which can accurately explain all its observed properties (in particular, the thread neutrino from the kernel).

· There is no detailed physical theory of certain manifestations of star activity. For example, the reasons for the explosion of supernovae are not completely clear; It is not entirely clear why the narrow jets of gas are thrown out of the surroundings of some stars. However, there are particularly mysterious short outbreaks of gamma radiation, regularly occurring in various directions in the sky. It is not clear even if they are connected with the stars or with other objects, and at what distance from us are these objects.

In galactic and extragalactic astronomy:

· The problem of the hidden mass is not solved, consisting in the fact that the gravitational field of galaxies and clusters of galaxies is several times stronger than the observed substance can provide. Probably most of the substance of the Universe is still hidden from astronomers;

· There is no single theory of formation of galaxies;

· The main problems of cosmology are not solved: there is no completed physical theory of the birth of the Universe and its fate in the future is not clear.

Here are some questions to which astronomers hope to get answers in the 21st century:

· Does the next stars of the planet of the earthly type exist and do they have a biosphere (are they life for them)?

· What processes contribute to the start of the formation of stars?

· How are biologically important chemical elements, such as carbon, oxygen, are formed and apply to the galaxy?

· Are black holes with the source of energy of active galaxies and quasars?

· Where and when did the galaxies formed?

· Will the universe expand forever, or its expansion is changed by a collapse?

Ticket number 9.

The laws of the Kepler, their opening, value and border of applicability.

The three laws of movement of the planets regarding the Sun were brought by an empirically German astronomer Johann Kepler at the beginning of the XVII century. This became possible thanks to the many years of observations of the Danish astronomer quietly Brage.

First The law of Kepler. Each planet is moving along the ellipse, in one of the focus of which the sun is located ( e. = c. / a. where from - distance from the center of the ellipse to its focus, but - Big half, e - eccentricity ellipse. The more E, the more the ellipse differs from the circle. If a from \u003d 0 (focuses coincide with the center), then e \u003d 0 and ellipse turns into a circle with a radius but).

Second The law of Kepler (the law of equal area). The radius of the planet in equal intervals describes isometric areas. Another wording of this law: the sectorial speed of the planet is constant.

The third The law of Kepler. Squares of periods of appeals planets around the Sun are proportional to cubes of large semi-axes of their elliptic orbits.

The modern formulation of the first law is supplemented as follows: in the unperturbed movement of the orbit of a moving body there is a second-order curve - ellipse, parabola or hyperbole.

Unlike the first two, the third law of Kepler is applicable only to elliptical orbits.

The speed of the planet in the perihelion:, where V c \u003d circular speed at r \u003d a.

Speed \u200b\u200bin Aflia:.

Kepler discovered its laws empirically. Newton brought the laws of Kepler from the law of world community. To determine the masses of heavenly bodies, a summary of the third law of the Kepler on any systems of contact tel is important. In generalized form, this law is usually formulated as follows: the squares of the periods T 1 and T 2 of the circulation of two bodies around the Sun, multiplied by the sum of the masses of each body (respectively, M 1 and M 2) and the Sun (M C) include as Cubes of large semi-axes A 1 and a 2 their orbits: . In this case, the interaction between the bodies M 1 and M 2 is not taken into account. If you neglect the masses of these bodies in comparison with the mass of the Sun, then the formulation of the third law, given by the Kepler himself:. The law of the Kepler can also be expressed as a relationship between the body of the orbit of the body with a mass M and a large half-axis of orbits A: . The third law of Kepler can be used to determine the mass of double stars.

Application on a star map of the object (planet, comet, etc.) according to the specified coordinates.

Ticket number 10.

Planets of the earth group: Mercury, Mars, Venus, Earth, Pluto. They have small sizes and masses, the average density of these planets several times more water density. They slowly rotate around their axes. They have few satellites. The planets of the earth group have solid surfaces. The similarity of the planets of the earth group does not exclude a significant difference. For example, Venus, unlike other planets, rotates in the direction opposite to its movement around the Sun, and 243 times slower than the Earth. Pluto is the smallest of the planets (Pluto diameter \u003d 2260 km, satellite - Charon 2 times less, approximately the same as the Earth-Moon system is "double planet"), but in physical characteristics it is close to this group.

Mercury. Mass: 3 * 10 23 kg (0.055 Earth) R orbits: 0.387 A.E. D Planets: 4870 km The properties of the atmosphere: the atmosphere is practically absent, helium and hydrogen of the Sun, sodium, highlighted by the superheated surface of the planet. Surface: Easy with crater, there is a set of 1300 km in diameter, called "Caloris Pool" Features: The day lasts two years.

Venus. Mass: 4.78 * 10 24 kg R orbits: 0.723 A.E. D Planets: 12100 km The composition of the atmosphere: mainly carbon dioxide with nitrogen and oxygen impurities, sulfur and plastic acid condensate clouds. Surface: Stony desert, relatively smooth, however, there are crater Features: surface pressure 90 times\u003e Ground, reverse orbit rotation, strong greenhouse effect (T \u003d 475 0 s).

Land . R orbits: 1 AE. (150 000000 km) R planets: 6400 km The composition of the atmosphere: nitrogen by 78%, oxygen by 21% and carbon dioxide. Surface: the most diverse. Features: a lot of water, the conditions necessary for the origin and existence of life. There are 1 satellite - Moon.

Mars. Mass: 6.4 * 1023 kg R Orbit: 1.52 A.E. (228 million km) D Planets: 6670 km The composition of the atmosphere: carbon dioxide with impurities. Surface: Craters, Valley "Mariner", Mount Olympus - the highest in the system Features: plenty of water in polar hats, presumably earlier climate was suitable for organic life on a carbon basis, and the evolution of the climate of Mars is reversible. There are 2 satellites - Phobos and Dimimos. Phobos drops slowly on Mars.

Pluto / Charon.

Mass: 1.3 * 10 23 kg / 1.8 * 10 11 kg

R orbits: 29.65-49.28 A.E.

D Planets: 2324/1212 km

The composition of the atmosphere: Thin layer of methane

Features: Double planet, possibly planetsmal, orbit does not lie in the plane of other orbits. Pluto and Charon are always addressed to each other

Planets Giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

They have large sizes and masses (weight of Jupiter\u003e Mass of the Earth, 318 times, in volume - 1320 times). Planets giants are very quickly rotating around their axes. The result of this is a large compression. Planets are located far from the sun. They are distinguished by a large number of satellites (Jupiter -16, Saturn - 17, in uranium - 16, Neptune - 8). Feature of planet-giants - rings consisting of particles and blocks. These planets do not have solid surfaces, their density is small, consist mainly of hydrogen and helium. Gaseous hydrogen atmosphere goes into a liquid, and then into a solid phase. At the same time, rapid rotation and the fact that hydrogen becomes conductor of electricity, causes significant magnetic fields of these planets, which captured the charged particles flying from the Sun and form radiation belts.

Jupiter Mass: 1.9 * 10 27 kg R orbits: 5.2 ae D Planets: 143 760 km by Equator Composition: hydrogen with helium impurities. Satellites: There are plenty of water on Europe, a gamorn with ice, Io with a sulfur volcano. Features: A large red spot, almost a star, 10% of radiation - own, pulls the moon from us (2 meters per year).	Saturn. Mass: 5.68 * 10 26 R orbits: 9.5 AE. D Planets: 120 420 km Composition: hydrogen and helium. Satellites: Titan more Mercury, has an atmosphere. Features: Beautiful rings, low density, many satellites, magnetic field poles almost coincide with the axis of rotation.
Uranus Mass: 8.5 * 1025kg R orbits: 19.2 A.E. D Planets: 51 300 km Composition: methane, ammonia. Satellites: Miranda has a very difficult relief. Features: The axis of rotation is directed towards the Sun, does not radiate energetic energy, the largest angle of deviation of the magnetic axis from the axis of rotation.	Neptune. Mass: 1 * 10 26 kg R orbits: 30 A.E. D Planets: 49500 km Composition: methane, ammonia hydrogen atmosphere .. Satellites: Triton has a nitrogen atmosphere, water. Features: emits 2.7 times more absorbed energy.

Installation of the model of the celestial sphere for this latitude and its orientation on the sides of the horizon.

Ticket number 11.

Distinctive features of the moon and satellites planets.

Moon - the only natural satellite of the Earth. The surface of the moon is strongly heterogeneous. Main large-scale education - the sea, mountains, craters and bright rays maybe emissions of the substance. The sea, dark, smooth plains are depressed filled with frozen lava. The diameters of the biggest of them exceed 1000 km. Dr. Three types of formations are likely to be a consequence of the bombing of the lunar surface in the early stages of the existence of the solar system. The bombing lasted several. hundreds of millions of years, and the fragments settled on the surface of the moon and the planets. The fragments of asteroids by the diameter from hundreds of kilometers to the smallest dust particles formed ch. Details of the moon and the surface layer of rocks. Behind the bombing period was followed by filling in basalt lava seas generated by the radioactive heating of the lunar subsoil. Cosmic devices. The Apparatuses of the Apollo series was registered by the seismic activity of the moon, so on. L. oNOTRYATION. Samples of the lunar soil delivered to the Earth by astronauts showed that the age of L. 4.3 billion years is probably the same as the Earth consists of the same Him. Elements as the Earth, with the same as a ratio. On L. No and, probably, there has never been atm-ry, and there is no reason to say that there ever existed life there. According to the latest theories, L. was formed in the cuts of the collision of the planezimali with dimensions from Mars and the Young Earth. Temp-PA lunar surface reaches 100 ° with lunar day and drops to -200 ° C lunar at night. On L. There is no erosion, for the claim. The slow destruction of the cliffs due to alternate thermal expansion and compression and random sudden local catastrophes due to meteorite strikes.

The mass of L. is precisely measured by studying the orbits of its arts, satellites and refers to the mass of the earth as 1/81.3; Its diameter 3476 km is 1 / 3.6 diameter of the Earth. L. has the form of an ellipsoid, although three mutually perpendicular diameters differ no more than a kilometer. The period of rotation L. is equal to the period of appeal around the Earth, so, if not counting the effects of the libration, it is always turned to one side. Cf. The density is 3330 kg / m 3, the value is very close to the density of the main rocks lying under the earth's crust, and the force of gravity on the surface of the moon is 1/6 of the Earth. The moon is the nearest heavenly body to the ground. If the Earth and the Moon were point masses or rigid spheres, the density of which changes only from the distance from the center, and there would not be other celestial bodies, then the orbits of the moon around the earth would be an unchanged ellipse. However, the sun and in a significantly less planet is provided by gravitats. Impact on L., causing the perturbation of its orbital elements, therefore a large half-axis, eccentricity and inclination are continuously subjected to cyclic perturbations, oscillating relative to average values.

Natural satellites , Natural body, turning around the planet. In the solar system, more than 70 satellites of various sizes are known and new ones open all the time. The seven largest satellites are the moon, the four Galilean satellites of Jupiter, Titan and Triton. All of them have diameters exceeding 2500 km, and are small "worlds" with complex geol. history; Sow-rye has an atmosphere. All other satellites have dimensions comparable to asteroids, i.e. from 10 to 1500 km. They may consist of rock rocks or ice, the form varies from almost spherical to the wrong, surface - either ancient with numerous craters, or underwent changes associated with activity in depths. The size of the orbits lie in the range from less than two to several hundred radius of the planet, the period of circulation is from several hours before more than a year. They believe that some satellites were captured by the gravitational attraction of the planet. They have irregular orbits and sometimes turn in the direction opposite to the orbital motion of the planet around the Sun (so-called inverse traffic). S.E. orbits Can be strongly inclined to plane orbit planets or very elongated. Extended systems S.E. With regular orbits around four giants planets, probably arose from a gas-pepped cloud that surrounded the parental planet, like the formation of the planets in the proto-oarsal nebula. S.E. Size less than several. hundreds of kilometers have an irregular shape and probably formed with destructive collisions of larger bodies. In external The regions of the solar system they often appeal near the rings. Elements of orbits external. S.E., especially eccentricity, are susceptible to strong perturbations caused by the Sun. Several. Couples and even Trok S.E. have periods of circulation related by a simple ratio. For example, Jupiter's satellite Europe has a period almost equal to half of the period of Ganyada. Such a phenomenon is called resonance.

Determination of the visibility of the Mercury Planet according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 12.

Comets and asteroids. Basics of modern ideas about the origin of the solar system.

Comet , the heavenly body of the solar system, consisting of ice particles and dust moving along the strongly elongated orbits, means the distance from the sun looks weakly luminous spots of oval shape. As it approaches the Sun around this nucleus, a coma (almost spherical gas-pepped shell surrounding the comet's head is approached with its approaching to the sun. This "atmosphere", continuously blowing up with the solar wind, is replenished with gas and dust, catering from the kernel. Diameter K. reaches 100 thousand . km. Speeding speed of gas and dust is a few kilometers per second relative to the nucleus, and they are dissipated in the interplanetary space partly through the tail of the comet.) And the tail (gas flow and dust, which is formed under the action of light pressure and interaction with the solo wind from dissipating in the interplanetary The space of the comet's atmosphere. In most comet X. Appears when they approach the sun at a distance of less than 2 A. X. Always directed from the sun. Gas X. It is formed by ionized molecules thrown out of the kernel, under the influence of solar radiation has a bluish color, The distinct boundaries, a typical width of 1 million km, length - tens of millions of kilometers. Structure X. It may change significantly for several. hours. The speed of individual molecules ranges from 10 to 100 km / s. Dusty X. more blurred and twisted, and its curvature depends on the mass of dust particles. Dust is continuously released from the nucleus and is fond of gas flow.). The center, part of K. is called the core and is an ice-eyed body - the remains of huge clusters of ice planetsimals formed during the formation of the solar system. Now they are focused on the periphery - in the Oorta-Epic cloud. The middle mass of the kernel K. 1-100 billion kg, diameter 200-1200 m, the density of 200 kg / m 3 ("/ 5 water density). There are voids in the nuclei. These are frayondignations, consisting by one third of the ice and two A third of the dusty in-wa. The ice is mainly water, but there are impurities of other connections. With each return to the sun, the ice melts, the gas molecules leave the kernel and carries the particles of dust and ice, while spherical is formed around the kernel, commemorate. A long plasma tail, directed from the Sun, and a dust tail. The number of lost in-v depends on the amount of dust covering the kernel, and the distance from the sun in the perihelion. Data obtained in the resolution of the observations of the Jotto spacecraft. Comet Halley from a close distance, confirmed MN. Theory of structure K.

K. are usually called in honor of their openers with an indication of the year, when they were last observed. Are divided into short-period. And long-term game. Short-period. K. appeal around the Sun with a period of a few. years, in cf. OK. 8 years; The shortest period - a few more than 3 years - has K. Enke. These K. were captured by gravitats. The field of Jupiter and began to rotate on relatively small orbits. Typical of them has a distance in perichelia 1.5 AE. And completely destroyed after 5 thousand revolutions, generating a meteor flow. Astronomers observed the decay of K. Vesta in 1976 and K. * Biela. On the contrary, periods of circulation of long-term. K. can reach 10 thousand, or even 1 million years, and their aphelies can be on "/ z distances to the nearest stars. In the present, about 140 short-periods are known. And 800 long priority. K., and every year opens About 30 new K. Our knowledge of these objects is incomplete, because they are detected only when they approach the sun to the distance about 2.5 AE. It is assumed that around the Sun draws OK. Trillion K.

Asteroid (Asteroid), Small Planet, K-paradium has a close to a circular orbit lying near the plane of the ecliptic between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Aggregate A. Assigns the sequence number after determining their orbit, quite accurate so that A. "Not lost." In 1796, Franz. Astronomer Josephy-Rom Laland proposed to start searching for the "missing" planet between Mars and Jupiter predicted by the rule of Boda. On New Year's Eve 1801 Ial. Astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi during observations to compile a star catalog opened the core. It. The scientist Karl Gauss calculated her orbit. About 3,500 asteroids are known to the present, time. Radius of ceres, Pallades and Vesta - 512, 304 and 290 km, respectively, the rest are less. It is estimated in ch. Belt is approx. 100 million A. Their total mass is apparently about 1/2200 mass originally present in this area. The emergence of the model. A., perhaps, is associated with the destruction of the planet (traditional called Phaeton, Sov. The name is Olbers Planet) in the cuts of collisions with other bodies. The surfaces of the observed A. consist of metals and rock rocks. Depending on the composition of the asteroids are divided into types (C, S, M, U). The composition of the type U is not identified.

A. are also grouped by orbits elements, forming so-called. Hirayama family. Most A. has the period of circulation OK. 8 hour. All A. Radius is less than 120 km have an irregular form, the orbits are susceptible to gravitats. The effects of Jupiter. In the cuts in the distribution of A. on large semi-axes of orbit, there are gaps called the hatches of Kirkwood. A., who fell into these hatches, would have periods, multiple orbital period of Jupiter. The orbits of asteroids in these hatches are extremely unstable. Internal and external The edges of the A. belt lie in areas where this ratio is 1: 4 and 1: 2. A.

When the protocol is compressed, it forms a disc from the substance surrounding the star. A part of the substance of this disk falls back to the star, obeying the strength of gravity. Gas and dust, which remain in the disk, gradually cooled. When the temperature drops low enough, the disk substance begins to assemble into small clots - foci of condensation. So the planezimali arise. In the process of forming a solar system, part of the planezimals collapsed as a result of collisions, while others were combined to form planets. In the outer part of the solar system, large planetary kernels were formed, which were able to keep a certain amount of gas in the form of a primary cloud. Heavier particles were held by attraction of the sun and under the influence of tidal forces for a long time could not form in the planet. This was the beginning of the formation of "Gaza Giants" - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They, in all likelihood, have their own mini-discs from gas and dust, of which the moon and rings were eventually formed. Finally, in the internal solar system of solid, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are formed.

Determination of the visibility of the planet Venus according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 13.

Sun, as a typical star. His main characteristics.

The sun , the central body of the solar system, is a hot plasma ball. The star around which the Earth turns. The usual star of the main sequence of spectral class G2, a self-losing gas mass, consisting of 71% of hydrogen and 26% of helium. The absolute star value is +4.83, the effective surface temperature of 5770 K. In the center of the sun it is 15 * 10 6 k, which provides pressure capable of withstanding the power of gravity, which on the surface of the Sun (photosphere) is 27 times more than on Earth. Such a high temperature occurs due to thermonuclear hydrogen conversion reactions in helium (proton-proton reaction) (energy output from the surface of the photosphere of 3.8 * 10 26 W). The sun is a spherically symmetric body in equilibrium. Depending on the change in the physical conditions, the sun can be divided into several concentric layers, gradually passing into each other. Almost all the energy of the Sun is generated in the central region - kernel where the reaction of thermonuclear synthesis flows. The kernel occupies less than 1/1000 of its volume, the density is 160 g / cm 3 (the density of the photosphere is 10 million times less than the density of water). Due to the enormous mass of the Sun and the opacity of its substance, radiation comes from the kernel to the photosphere very slowly - about 10 million years. During this time, the frequency of X-ray radiation is reduced, and it becomes visible light. However, neutrinos formed in nuclear reactions are freely leaving the sun and in principle ensure the direct receipt of information about the kernel. The discrepancy between the observed and predicted theory of the thread of neutrino spawned serious disputes about the inner structure of the Sun. Over the past 15% of the radius there is a convective zone. Convective movements also play a role in transferring magnetic fields generated by currents in its rotating internal layers, which is manifested in the form of solar activity Moreover, the strongest fields are observed in sun spots. Outside the photosphere there is a solar atmosphere, in which the temperature reaches the minimum value of 4200 K, and then increases again due to the dissipation of shock waves generated by subcrimpheric convection, in the chromosphere, where it sharply increases to the value of 2 * 10 6 K, characteristic of the crown. The high temperature of the latter leads to the continuous expiration of the plasma substance into the interplanetary space in the form of a solar wind. In some areas, the magnetic field tension can increase and increase. This process is accompanied by a whole complex of solar activity. These include solar flares (in chromosphere), protuberans (in the solar crown) and coronal holes (special crown areas).

The mass of 1.99 * 10 30 kg, the average radius, determined by approximately a spherical photosphere, is 700,000 km. This is equivalent to 330,000 masses and 110 land radii, respectively; The sun can fit 1.3 million such bodies like the Earth. The rotation of the Sun causes the movement of its superficial formations, such as solar spots, in the photoosphere and layers located above it. The average rotation period is 25.4 days, and at the equator it is 25 days, and on the poles - 41 days. The rotation causes the compression of a solar disc, which is 0.005%.

Determining the visibility of the planet Mars according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 14.

The most important manifestations of solar activity, their connection with geophysical phenomena.

Solar activity is a consequence of the convection of the middle layers of the star. The reason for this phenomenon is that the number of energy coming from the kernel is much more than the heat conduction. Convection causes strong magnetic fields generated by currents in the convecting layers. The main manifestations of solar activity, affecting the Earth, are solar spots, sunshine, protuberances.

Solar spots Education in the sun photosphere was observed since ancient times, and at present, they are considered to be the areas of the photosphere with the pace for 2000 to the lower than in the surrounding, due to the presence of a strong magnetic field (approx. 2000 HS). S.P. Consist from a relatively dark center, parts (shadows) and brighter fibrous half. The gas flow from the shadow in the half-length is called the Evershred effect (V \u003d 2km / s). Number S.P. and their appearance change during the 11-year solar activity cycle, or solar spots cycle, which is described by the Schupeler's law and is graphically illustrated by a butterfly diagram of mounder (moving spots in latitude). Zurich's relative number of solar spots Indicates the total surface area covered by S.P. The main 11-year cycle is superimposed long-period variations. For example, S.P. Change Magn. Polarity for a 22-year-old solar activity cycle. But the naib, the striking example of long-period variations is a minimum. Mounty (1645-1715), when S.P. absent. Although it is generally recognized that the variations of the number S.P. Defined the diffusion of the magnetic field from rotating solar subsoils, the process is not yet understood to the end. The strong magnetic field of solar spots affects the field of the earth causing interference with radio communications and polar radiance. There is several. irrefutable short-period effects, approval of the existence of long priority. The links between the climate and the number of S.P., especially the 11-year-old cycle, is very controversial, which is due to the difficulties of compliance with the conditions, which are necessary when conducting accurate statistical data analysis.

sunny wind The expiration of high-temperature plasma (electrons, protons, neutrons and hadrons) of the solar crown, radiation of intense waves of a radio spectra, X-ray rays into the surrounding space. Forms so-called. Heliosphere, stretching at 100 A.E. from the sun. Sunny wind is so intense that it is capable of damaging the external layers of comet, causing the appearance of "tail". S.V. Ionizes the upper layers of the atmosphere, so the ozone layer is formed, the polar radiances causes and increasing the radioactive background and the interference of the radio communication in the dispensing places of the ozone layer.

The last maximum of solar activity was in 2001. Maximum solar activity means the largest number of spots, radiation and protuberances. It has long been established that the change in solar activity The Sun influences the following factors:

* epidemiological situation on Earth;

* Number of different kind of natural disasters (typhoon, earthquake, flood, etc.);

* on the number of automotive and railway accidents.

The maximum of all this falls on the years of the active sun. As the scientist Chizhevsky installed, the active sun affects human well-being. Since then, periodic predictions of human well-being are drawn up.

2. Determination of the visibility of the planet Jupiter according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 15.

Methods for determining distances to stars, units of distance and communication between them.

Pararallax method is used to measure the distance to the bodies of the solar system. The radius of the Earth turns out to be too small to serve as a basis for measuring the parallact displacement of the stars and distances to them. Therefore, use the one-year parallax instead of horizontal.

The one-year parallax star call an angle (P), under which from the star could be seen a large part of the earth orbit if it is perpendicular to the beam of view.

a - big part of the earth orbit,

p is a one-year parallax.

Also uses a unit of a distance of parsek. Parsek is the distance from which the large semi-axis of the earth orbit, the perpendicular beam of view is visible at an angle of 1².

1 parsek \u003d 3.26 light year \u003d 206265 a. e. \u003d 3 * 10 11 km.

Measuring the one-year parallax can be reliably set the distance to the stars that are 100 parses or 300 s. years.

If absolute and visible stellar values \u200b\u200bare known, then the distance to the star can be determined by the formula LG (R) \u003d 0.2 * (M-M) +1

Determining the visibility of the moon according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 16.

The main physical characteristics of stars, the relationship of these characteristics. Star equilibrium conditions.

The main physical characteristics of the stars: the luminosity, absolute and visible stellar sizes, weight, temperature, size, spectrum.

Luminosity - Energy emitted by a star or other celestial body per unit of time. Usually given in units of the luminosity of the Sun, expressed by the LG formula (L / LC) \u003d 0.4 (Mc - M), where L and M - the luminosity and the absolute star of the source, LC and MC are the corresponding values \u200b\u200bfor the Sun (MC \u003d +4 , 83). It is also determined by the formula L \u003d 4πr 2 σt 4. Known stars, the luminosity of which is many times greater than the luminosity of the sun. The luminosity of Aldebaran in 160, and the Rigel is 80,000 times more than the sun. But the vast majority of stars have luminosity comparable with solar or less it.

Star Value - Star brightness measure. Z.V. Does not give a true idea of \u200b\u200bthe power of the star radiation. Close to Earth weak star may look brighter than a distant bright star, because The radiation flow received from it decreases inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Visible Z.V. - Glitter of the star, which sees the observer, looking at the sky. Absolute Z.V. - measure of true brightness, is the level of shine of the star, which would have been in a distance of 10 pcs. Hipparch invented the system visible Z.V. in 2nd. BC. The stars were assigned numbers depending on their visible brightness; The brightest stars were the 1st values, and the weakest - 6th. All R. 19th century This system has been modified. Modern scale Z.V. was established by determining Z.V. Representative sample of stars near Sev. Poles of the world (sowing. Polar row). They were determined by Z.V. All other stars. This is a logarithmic scale, on the first star of the 1st magnitude 100 times brighter than the stars of the 6th magnitude. As the measurement accuracy increases, the tenths had to be introduced. The brightest stars are brighter than the 1st size, and some even have negative stellar values.

Star Mass - The parameter directly defined only for components of double stars with known orbits and distances (M 1 + m 2 \u003d R 3 / T 2). So There are only few tens of stars installed mass, but for a much larger number, the mass can be determined from the dependence of the mass - the luminosity. Masses more than 40 solar and less than 0.1 solar is very rare. Most of most stars less solar. The temperature in the center of such stars cannot reach the level in which the reactions of nuclear synthesis begin, and the source of their energy is only the compression of Kelvin - Helmholtz. Such objects are called brown dwarfs.

Mass-luminosity Relationship found in 1924 by Eddington The ratio between the luminosity L and the star mass M. The ratio has the form L / LC \u003d (M / MS) A, where LC and MS - the luminosity and the mass of the sun, respectively, value but Typically lies in the range of 3-5. The ratio follows from the fact that the observed SV-VA of normal stars are determined mainly by their mass. This ratio for star-dwarfs is well consistent with observations. It is believed that it is also valid for supergiants and giants, although their mass is poorly amenable to direct measurements. The ratio is not applicable to white dwarfs, because overlaps their luminosity.

Star temperature - Temperature of some area of \u200b\u200bthe star. Refers to the number of the most important physical characteristics of any object. However, due to the fact that the temperature of various areas of the stars is different, as well as due to the fact that the temperature is a thermodynamic value, which depends on the flow of electromagnetic radiation and the presence of various atoms, ions and nuclei in some area of \u200b\u200bthe starry atmosphere, all these differences are combined In an efficient temperature, closely related to the emission of the star in the photoosphere. Effective temperature , The parameter characterizing the total amount of energy emitted by the star from the unit of its surface area. This is the unambiguous method of describing the stellar temperature. E.T. It is determined through the temperature of an absolutely black body, which, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, emitted the same power per unit area of \u200b\u200bthe surface as the star. Although the star spectrum in the details differs significantly from the spectrum of absolutely black body, the nonetheless temperature characterizes the gas energy in the outer layers of the star photosphere and allows using the law of wing displacement (λ max \u003d 0.29 / t), determine which wavelength There is a maximum of star radiation, and therefore the color of the star.

By size Stars are divided into dwarfs, subcarliki, normal stars, giants, subgigans and supergiant.

Spectrum The stars depends on its temperature, the pressure of the gas density of its photosphere, the power of the magnetic field and chemical. composition.

Spectral classes , the classification of stars according to their spectra (primarily the software relates, the intensities of spectral lines), first introduced ITAL. Astronomer sects. Introduced alphabetic designations, which were modified as knowledge of internal knowledge expands. Star structure. The color of the star depends on the pace of its surface, so in the SCU. Spectral classification of Draper (Harvard) S.K. Located in descending order of tempo:

Herzshprunga - Resevella chart , a chart that allows you to identify the two main characteristics of stars, expresses the relationship between the absolute star size and temperature. Named in honor of the Danish Astronomer of the Herzshprung and American Astronoma, Resessla, who published the first chart in 1914. The hottest stars lie in the left chart, and the stars of the highest luminosity are at the top. From the upper left corner to the lower right passes main sequence Reflective evolution of stars, and ending in dwarfs. Most stars belong to this sequence. The sun also applies to this sequence. Above this sequence are located in the specified procedure, subgigans, supergigant and giants, below - subcarliki and white dwarfs. These groups of stars are called luminosity classes.

Equilibrium conditions: As you know, the stars are the only objects of nature, within which uncontrollable thermonuclear synthesis reactions occur, which are accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy and determine the temperature of the stars. Most stars are in a stationary state, i.e. they do not explode. Some stars explode (the so-called new and supernovae stars). Why basically stars are in equilibrium? The power of nuclear explosions in stationary stars is backed by force, which is why these stars retain balance.

Calculation of linear dimensions of the shone at known angular sizes and distance.

Ticket number 17.

1. The physical meaning of the Stefan-Boltzmann law and its application to determine the physical characteristics of stars.

Stephen Boltzmann law The ratio between the total radiation power of the absolutely black body and its tempo. The total power of the unit area of \u200b\u200bradiation in W on 1 m 2 is given by the formula P \u003d σ t 4, Where σ \u003d 5.67 * 10 -8 W / m 2 K 4 - constant Stefan-Boltzmann, T is the absolute temperature of the absolute black body. Although astronomer, objects rarely emit, as an absolutely black body, their radiation spectrum is often a successful model of the spectrum of a real object. The dependence on the temperature in the 4th degree is very strong.

e - Radiation Energy Star Surface

L - star luminosity, R is a star radius.

With the help of the Finefan-Boltzmann formula and the law of wine determine the wavelength, which accounts for a maximum of radiation:

l MAX T \u003d B, B - Permanent Wine

You can proceed from the opposite, that is, using the luminosity and temperature to determine the size of the stars

2. Determination of the geographical latitude of the observation location at a given height of the shone in the climax and its declination.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 18.

Variables and nonstationary stars. Their meaning to study the nature of stars.

The glitter of stars variable changes with time. Now it is known to OK. 3 * 10 4. P.Z. They are divided into physical, the brilliance of which is changing due to the processes in them or about them, and optical statements, where this change is due to rotation or orbital movement.

The most important types of physical. P.Z.:

Pulsating - Cefeida, Whale world stars, semi-environment and improper red giants;

Eusphet (explosive) - stars with shells, young wrong variables, incl. Stars type T Torets (very young irregular stars associated with diffuse nebulae), supergigants of the Hubble type - Seedage (hot high-luminosity supergingants, the brightest objects in galaxies. They are unstable and probably are sources of radiation near the luminosity of Eddington, which occurs "Infringement" of stars shells. Potential supernovae.) Flambling red dwarfs;

Cataclysmic - new, supernova, symbiotic;

X-ray double stars

Specified P.Z. include 98% of well-known physical P.Z. Optical includes eclipse-double and rotating such as pulsars and magnetic variables. The sun refers to the rotating, because His star magnitude is poorly changing when sunny spots appear on the disk.

Among the pulsating stars are very interesting cepheids, named so named one of the first open variables of this type - 6 Cefhea. Cefeida is the stars of high luminosity and moderate temperature (yellow supergiant). During the evolution, they acquired a special structure: at a certain depth, a layer arose, which accumulates the energy coming from the bowels, and then again gives it. The star is periodically compressed, warming up, and expands, cooling. Therefore, the radiation energy is absorbed by the star gas, ionazuya it, then it is released again when the electrons are captured when the gas is cooling, radiating light quanta. As a result, the brilliance of Cefie is changing, as a rule, several times with a period of several days. Cefete play a special role in astronomy. In 1908, American astronomer Henrietta Livitt, who studied Cefeid in one of the nearest galaxies, a small magtel cloud, drew attention to the fact that these stars turned out to be the brightest, the period of changing their gloss. Sizes of small magtels clouds are small compared to the distance to it, and this means that the difference in visible brightness reflects the difference in the luminosity. Thanks to the found Livitt dependence period - the luminosity is easy to calculate the distance to each cefida, measuring its average shine and period of variability. And since the supergiantes are well noticeable, cepheids can be used to determine the distances even to relatively distant galaxies, in which they are observed. There is also the second reason for the special role of Cefeid. In the 60s. Soviet astronomer Yuri Nikolayevich Efremov found that the longer period of Cefeid, the younger than this star. Depending on the period - age is not difficult to determine the age of each cefeth. Selecting the stars with the maximum periods and studying the stars in which they enter, astronomers explore the youngest structures of the Galaxy. Cepheids More than other pulsating stars deserve the names of periodic variables. Each next cycle of shine changes is usually very accurately repeated by the previous one. However, there are also exceptions, the most famous of them is a polar star. It has long been discovered that it refers to cepheidam, although it changes the shine in fairly minor limits. But in recent decades, these oscillations began to fond, and by the mid-90s. The polar star almost ceased to pulsate.

Stars with shells , Stars, continuously or with irregular intervals, dumping gas ring from the equator or spherical shell. 3. C O. - Giants or stars-dwarfs of spectral class B, fast and close to the limit of destruction. Reset the shell is usually accompanied by a drop or increasing gloss.

Symbiotic stars , Stars whose spectra contain emission lines and combine the characteristic features of the red giant and the hot object - white dwarf or accretion disk around such a star.

RR Lyra Stars are presenting another important group of pulsating stars. This old stars are about the same mass as the sun. Many of them are in the ball star clusters. As a rule, they change their shine on one star magnitude approximately per day. Their properties, as well as the properties of Cefeide, are used to calculate astronomical distances.

R North Crown And the stars like her behave completely unpredictable way. Usually this star can be seen with the naked eye. Every few years, its shine falls to about the eighth star magnitude, and then gradually grows, returning to the previous level. Apparently, the reason here is that this star-supergiant discharges a carbon clouds, which condenses into grains, forming something like soot. If one of these thick black clouds takes place between us and the star, it flaps the light of the stars until the cloud dispels in space. Stars of this type are made of thick dust, which has an important meaning in areas where stars are formed.

Flashing stars . Magnetic phenomena in the sun are the cause of solar spots and solar flares, but they cannot significantly affect the brightness of the sun. For some stars - red dwarfs - it is not: on them, such outbreaks reach huge scales, and as a result, the light radiation can increase on a whole stellar value, and even more. The closest star, proxima of the Centaur, is one of these flashing stars. These light emissions can not be predicted in advance, but they continue only a few minutes.

The calculation of the declination of the shone according to its height in the climax on a certain geographic latitude.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 19.

Double stars and their role in determining the physical characteristics of stars.

A double star, a couple of stars associated with one system by the forces of gravity and aroused around the common center of gravity. Stars constituting a double star are called its components. Double stars are very common and divided into several types.

Each component of a visual-dual star is clearly visible to the telescope. The distance between them and mutual orientation varies slowly with time.

Elements of the elaborate-dual alternately blocked each other, so the glitter system temporarily weakens, the period between two gloss changes is equal to half the orbital period. The angular distance between the components is very small, and we cannot observe them separately.

Spectral-double stars are detected by changes in their spectra. With the mutual appeal, the star is periodically moving towards land, then from the Earth. According to the Doppler effect in the spectrum you can determine changes in motion.

Polarization doubles are characterized by periodic changes in the polarization of light. In such stars systems, with their orbital motion, gas and dust are illuminated in the space between them, the angle of falling light on this substance changes periodically, while the dissipated light is polarized. Accurate measurements of these effects allow calculating orbits, Star Mass Relations, Sizes, Speed \u200b\u200band Distance Between Components . For example, if the star is simultaneously eclodious and spectral-dual, then you can determine mass of each star and the tilt of the orbit . By the nature of the gloss change in the moments of eclipses, you can determine the relative sizes of stars and study the structure of their atmospheres . Double stars serving the radiation source in the X-ray range are called X-ray double. In some cases, there is a third component that turns around the center of the mass of the dual system. Sometimes one of the components of the double system (or both), in turn, can be double stars. The close components of the double star in the triple system can have a period of several days, while the third element may contact around the common center of mass of the closer pair with a period of hundreds and even thousands of years.

Measurement of the speeds of the stars of the double system and the application of the World Act is an important method for determining the mass of stars. The study of double stars is the only direct method for calculating the star masses.

In the system of closely arranged double stars, the mutual forces of gravity seek to stretch each of them, give her the shape of a pear. If the burden is strong enough, the critical moment comes when the substance begins to flow from one star and fall to another. There is some area in the form of three-dimensional eight around these two stars, the surface of which is a critical border. These two pear shapes, each around their stars, are called Rosha's cavities. If one of the stars grows so much that Rosha fills his cavity, then the substance is rushed from it to another star at that point where the cavities come into contact. Often, the star material does not go straight on the star, and first twists, forming the so-called accretion disk. If both stars expanded so much that they filled their rosh cavities, then a contact double star arises. The material of both stars is mixed and merges into the ball around two star nuclei. Since ultimately all the stars swell up, turning into the giants, and many stars are double, then the interacting double systems - the phenomenon is incredible.

The calculation of the height of the shone in the climax of a known decline for a given geographic latitude.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 20.

The evolution of stars, its stages and finite stages.

Stars are formed in interstellar gas-pepped clouds and nebulae. The main force, "forming" stars - gravity. Under certain conditions, a very sparse atmosphere (interstellar gas) begins to shrink under the action of gravity forces. The gas cloud is compacted in the center, where heat allocated during compression - the protocon is emitted, emitting in the infrared range. The protocol is heated under the action of substances falling on it, and the reactions of nuclear synthesis are beginning with energy isolation. In such a state, this is a variable star type T Torch. The remains of the cloud are scattered. Next, gravitational forces are tightened by hydrogen atoms to the center, where they merge, forming helium and highlighting energy. Growing pressure in the center prevents further compression. This is a stable phase of evolution. This star is a star sequence star. The luminosity of the star is growing as it seals and heating its kernel. The time during which the star belongs to the main sequence depends on its mass. The sun is approximately 10 billion years, however, the stars are much more massive than the Sun exists in stationary mode only a few million years. After the star spends the hydrogen contained in its central part, large changes occur inside the star. Hydrogen starts to break off not in the center, but in the shell, which increases in size, swells. As a result, the size of the star itself increases sharply, and its surface temperature drops. It is this process that gives rise to red giants and supergiants. The final stages of the star evolution are also determined by the mass of the star. If this mass does not exceed the solar more than 1.4 times, the star stabilizes, becoming white dwarf. Catastrophic compression does not occur due to the main property of electrons. There is such a degree of compression at which they begin to repel, although there is no longer any source of thermal energy. This happens only when the electrons and atomic nuclei are compressed incredibly much, forming extremely dense matter. White dwarf with a mass of the Sun in volume is approximately equal to the ground. White dwarf gradually cools, ultimately turning into a dark ball of radioactive ash. According to astronomers, at least a tenth of all the galaxy stars are white dwarfs.

If the mass of the shrinking star exceeds the mass of the sun by more than 1.4 times, then such a star, reaching the stage of white dwarf, will not stop. Gravitational forces in this case are so great that electrons are pressed into atomic nuclei. As a result, the protons turn into neutrons capable of laying down to each other without any intervals. The density of neutron stars is superior to even the density of white dwarfs; But if the mass of the material does not exceed 3 solar masses, neutrons, like electrons, are capable of preventing further compression. A typical neutron star has in the diameter just from 10 to 15 km, and one cubic centimeter of its substance weighs about a billion tons. In addition to huge density, neutron stars have two more special properties that allow them to detect, despite such small dimensions: this is a rapid rotation and a strong magnetic field.

If the mass of the star exceeds 3 masses of the Sun, then the final stage of its life cycle is probably a black hole. If a lot of stars, and, consequently, the strength of gravity is so great, the star is subject to a catastrophic gravitational compression, which no stabilizing forces can withstand. The density of the substance during this process tends to infinity, and the radius of the object is to zero. According to the theory of Einstein's relativity, in the center of the black hole there is a singularity of space-time. The gravitational field on the surface of the compressive star is growing, so the radiation and particles it becomes more difficult to leave it. In the end, such a star turns out to be under the horizon of events, which can be clearly represented as a unilateral membrane, transmitting substance and radiation only inside and not producing anything out. A collapse star turns into a black hole, and it can only be detected by a sharp change in the properties of space and time near it. The radius of the horizon of events is called Schwarzschald radius.

Stars with a mass of less than 1.4 solar at the end of the life cycle slowly discharge the upper shell, which is called the planetary nebula. More massive stars, which turn into a neutron star or a black hole, first explode like supernovae, their shine in a short time increases by 20 values \u200b\u200band more, releases energy more than the sun radiates for 10 billion years, and the remnants of the exploded stars are scattered at a speed of 20 000 km per second.

Observation and sketching of the positions of solar spots with a telescope (on the screen).

Ticket number 21.

Composition, structure and sizes of our galaxy.

Galaxy , Star system to which the sun belongs. The galaxy contains at least 100 billion stars. Three main components: central thickening, disk and galactic halo.

The central thickening consists of old stars of the population of type II (red giants), located very tightly, and in its center (kernel) there is a powerful source of radiation. It was assumed that the core is a black hole, initiating the observed powerful energy processes accompanied by radiation in the radio spectra. (The gas ring rotates around the black hole; hot gas, breaking from its indoor edge, falls on a black hole, while the energy that we observe are distinguished.) But recently, the outbreak of visible radiation and the hypothesis about the black hole disappeared. Parameters of central thickening: 20,000 light years in diameter and 3000 light years in thickness.

The galaxy disc containing young stars of the type I (young blue supergiant), interstellar matter, scattered star clusters and 4 spiral sleeves, has a diameter of 100,000 light years and the thickness of only 3000 light years. The galaxy rotates, the inner part of it takes place in their orbits much faster than external. The sun makes a full turn around the core for 200 million. In the spiral sleeves there is a continuous process of star formation.

The galactic halo is concentral with a disc and central thickening and consists of stars, mainly members of ball clusters and belonging to the population of type II. However, most of the substance in halo is invisible and cannot be enclosed in ordinary stars, it is not gas and not dust. Thus, the halo contains dark invisible substance. Calculations of the speed of rotation of large and small magtellane clouds, which are satellites of the Milky Way, show that the mass concluded in the halo, 10 times the mass, which we observe in the disk and thickening.

The sun is located at a distance of 2/3 from the center of the disk in an orion sleeve. Its localization in the disc plane (galactic equator) allows you to see a disc star from the ground as a narrow strip Milky Way, Covering the entire celestial sphere and inclined at an angle of 63 ° to heavenly equator. The center of the Galaxy lies in Sagittarius, but he is unobserved in the visible light due to dark nebulae from gas and dust, absorbing the light of stars.

Calculation of the radius of the star according to its luminosity and temperature.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 22.

Star clusters. The physical condition of the interstellar medium.

Star clusters are stars located relatively close to each other and associated with a common movement in space. Apparently, almost all stars are born by groups, and not separately. Therefore, star clusters - the thing is quite common. Astronomers love to study star clusters, because all the stars included in the accumulation were formed about the same time and approximately at the same distance from us. Any noticeable differences in the brilliance between such stars are true differences. It is especially useful to study star clusters in terms of dependence of their properties from the mass - because the age of these stars and their distance from the ground is about the same, so they differ from each other with their mass. There are two types of star clusters: open and ball. In the open cluster, each star is visible separately, they are distributed on some sky more or less evenly. And the ball clusters, on the contrary, are like the sphere, so tightly filled with stars, which in its center individual stars are indistinguishable.

Open clusters contain from 10 to 1000 stars, among them there are much more young than old, and the oldest hardly count more than 100 million years. The fact is that in older clusters, the stars are gradually moving away from each other until they are mixed with the main set of stars. Although a certain extent keeps open accumulations together, they are still quite fragile, and the other object can break them.

The clouds in which stars are formed are concentrated in the disk of our galaxy, and it is there that open star clusters are found.

In contrast to open, ball accumulations are spheres, tightly filled with stars (from 100 thousand to 1 million). The size of a typical ball cluster is from 20 to 400 light years in the diameter.

In tightly stuffed centers of these clusters, the stars are in such proximity to one another that mutual gravity binds them with each other, forming compact double stars. Sometimes there is even a complete merger of stars; With a close convergence, the outdoor stings of the star can collapse, exposing the central kernel on direct review. In the ball clusters, the double stars occur 100 times more often than anywhere else.

Around our galaxy, we know about 200 ball star clusters, which are distributed throughout the halo, concluding galaxies. All these clusters are very old, and they arose more or less at the same time as the galaxy itself. It seems that the accumulations were formed when parts of the cloud from which the galaxy was created were divided into smaller fragments. The ball clusters do not diverge, because the stars are sitting in them very closely, and their powerful mutual powers are associated with a cluster into a dense one.

The substance (gas and dust), located in space between the stars, is called an interstellar medium. Most of it is concentrated in the spiral sleeves of the Milky Way and is 10% of its mass. In some areas, the substance is relatively cold (100 K) and is detected by infrared radiation. Such clouds contain neutral hydrogen, molecular hydrogen and other radicals, the presence of which can be detected using radio telescopes. In areas near high luminosity stars, the gas temperature can reach 1000-10000 K, and hydrogen ionized.

The interstellar medium is very hot (about 1 atom to cm 3). However, in dense clouds, the concentration of the substance can be 1000 times higher than the average. But in a dense cloud, a cubic centimeter accounts for only a few hundred atoms. The reason why we still manage to observe the interstellar substance is that we see it in a large thickness of the space. The particle sizes are 0.1 μm, they contain carbon and silicon, come to the interstellar medium from the atmosphere of cold stars as a result of supernova explosions. The resulting mixture forms new stars. The interstellar medium has a weak magnetic field and permeated by the streams of cosmic rays.

Our solar system is in the area of \u200b\u200bthe galaxy, where the density of the interstellar is unusually low. This area is called local "bubble"; It extends in all directions about 300 light years.

Calculation of the angular sizes of the Sun for an observer located on another planet.

Ticket number 23.

The main types of galaxies and their distinctive features.

Galaxies , stars, dust and gas systems with a complete mass of 1 million to 10 trillion. Sun masses. The true nature of the galaxies was finally explained only in the 1920s. After sharp discussions. Until this time, when observed in a telescope, they looked like diffuse spots of light, resembling nebulae, but only with the help of a 2.5-meter reflector telescope Mount Wilson, first used in the 1920s, managed to get images from deployment. Stars in the nebula of Andromeda and prove that this is a galaxy. The same telescope was applied by Hubble for measuring Cefeide periods in Andromeda nebula. These variable stars have been studied quite well, so that you can accurately determine the distances to them. Andromeda nebula is approx. 700 PDAs, i.e. She lies far beyond our galaxy.

There are several types of galaxies, basic spiral and elliptical. Attempts to classify them with alphabetic and digital circuits, such as Hubble classification, however, some galaxies do not fit into these schemes, in this case they are called in honor of astronomers who first allocated them (for example, the galaxies of Seyfert and Markaryan), or give alphas Designations of classification schemes (for example, N-type and CD type galaxy). Galaxies that do not have a distinct form are classified as incorrect. The origin and evolution of galaxies are still not understood. The best of all studied spiral galaxies. These include objects having a bright core from which spiral sleeves come from gas, dust and stars. Most of the spiral galaxies have 2 sleeves emanating from the opposite sides of the kernel. As a rule, the stars in them are young. These are normal spirals. There are also crossed spirals that have a central jumper from stars connecting the inner ends of two sleeves. Our city also refers to spiral. The masses of almost all spirals are lying in the range from 1 to 300 billion. The mass of the Sun. About three quarters of all galaxies in the Universe are elliptical . They have an elliptical form, deprived of a distinguishable spiral structure. Their form can vary from almost spherical to cigar-like. In size, they are very diverse - from dwarf weight somewhat million solar to gigantic weighing 10 trillion solar. The biggest of the famous - CD type galaxies . They have a big core or perhaps several nuclei, fast moving relative to each other. Often these are pretty strong radio sources. Markaryan's galaxies were highlighted by the Soviet astronomer of the Venionic Markaryan in 1967. They are strong radiation sources in the ultraviolet range. Galaxies N-type Have a look like a star, weakly luminous core. They are also strong radio sources and presumably evolve into quasars. In the photo, the Seyfert galaxies look like normal spirals, but with a very bright core and spectra with wide and bright emission lines indicating the presence in their nuclei of a large number of fast-growing hot gas. This type of galaxies is open to American astronomer Carl Seyfert in 1943. The galaxies observed optically and at the same time being strong radio sources are called radio-beaks. These include Seyfert Galaxies, CD- and N-Type and Some Quasars. The mechanism for generating energy radioigalaxies is not yet understood.

Determination of the visibility of the planet Saturn according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 24.

Basics of modern ideas about the structure and evolution of the Universe.

In the 20th century An understanding of the universe was achieved as a whole. The first important step was made in the 1920s, when scientists came to the conclusion that our galaxy - the Milky Way is one of the millions of galaxies, and the sun is one of the millions of the Milky Way. The subsequent study of galaxies showed that they are removed from the Milky Way, and the further they are, the greater this speed (measured by red displacement in its spectrum). So, we live in expanding universe. The galaxies' running is reflected in the Hubble law, according to which the red shift of the galaxy is in proportion to the distance to it. In addition, in the largest scale, i.e. At the level of super-consumer galaxies, the universe has a cellular structure. Modern cosmology (the doctrine of the evolution of the Universe) is based on two postulates: the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

There are several models of the Universe.

In the Einstein-de Sitter model, the extension of the universe continues endlessly long, the universe does not expand in the static model and does not evolve, in the pulsating universe, expansion and compression cycles are repeated. However, the static model is least likely, not only the Hubble Law, but also found in 1965, the background relict radiation (that is, the radiation of the primary expanding chopped four-dimensional sphere).

The basis of some cosmological models is the "hot universe" theory, set out below.

In accordance with the solutions of Friedman Einstein equations 10-13 billion years ago, at the initial moment of time, the radius of the universe was zero. In the zero volume, all the energy of the universe was concentrated, his whole mass. The energy density is infinite, infinite and the density of the substance. This condition is called singular.

In 1946, Georgy Gamov and his colleagues developed the physical theory of the initial stage of expansion of the universe, explaining the presence of chemical elements in the synthesis in very high temperatures and pressure. Therefore, the beginning of the expansion on the theory of Gamov was called the "large explosion". The collaborators of Gamova were R. Alffer and the city of Bethe, so sometimes this theory is called "α, β, γ-theory".

The universe is expanding from a state with endless density. In a singular state, ordinary laws of physics are not applicable. Apparently, all fundamental interactions at such high energies are indistinguishable from each other. And from what radius of the universe makes sense to talk about the applicability of the laws of physics? The answer is from the plank length:

Since the time t p \u003d R p / c \u003d 5 * 10 -44 C (C - speed of light, H is a constant plank). Most likely, it was through T p gravitational interaction separated from the rest. According to theoretical calculations, during the first 10 -36 C, when the temperature of the universe was greater than 10 28 K, the energy in the volume unit remained constant, and the universe expanded at a speed significantly exceeding the speed of light. This fact does not contradict the theory of relativity, as not the substance, but the space itself expanded at such a speed. This stage of evolution is called inflexible . From modern theories of quantum physics it follows that at this time the strong nuclear interaction separated from electromagnetic and weak. The resulting energy and was the cause of the catastrophic expansion of the universe, which for a tiny period of time in 10 - 33 s increased from the size of the atom to the size of the solar system. At the same time, elementary particles and slightly fewer anticascies appeared to us. The substance and radiation were still in thermodynamic equilibrium. This era is called radiation Stage of Evolution. At a temperature of 5 ∙ 10 12 K ended stage reconganization : Almost all protons and neutrons are annihilated, turning into photons; There were only those for whom Anticascular not enough. The initial excess of particles compared to antiparticles is one billion from their number. It is from this "excessive" substance and consists mainly of the substance of the observed universe. A few seconds after a big explosion began stage primary nucleosynthesis when the deuterium and helium kernels were formed, which lasted about three minutes; Then the calm expansion and cooling of the universe began.

Approximately after a million years after the explosion, the balance between the substance and radiation was impaired, atoms began to form out of free protons and electrons, and the radiation began to pass through the substance as through a transparent environment. It was this radiation that was called relict, its temperature was about 3000 K. Currently, a background with a temperature of 2.7 K. Realistic background radiation was opened in 1965. It turned out to be at a high degree isotropic and its existence confirms the model of the hot expanding universe. After primary nucleosynthesis The substance began to evolve independently, due to the variations of the density of the substance formed in accordance with the principle of the uncertainty of Heisenberg during the inflationary stage, protoglactics appeared. Where the density was slightly more average, the foci of attraction, areas with a reduced density were made all more rarellied, since the substance went out of them into more dense areas. It is so almost a homogeneous medium that was divided into individual protoglactics and their clusters, and after hundreds of millions of years, the first stars appeared.

Cosmological models lead to the conclusion that the fate of the Universe depends only on the average density of its fill substance. If it is below some critical density, the expansion of the universe will continue forever. This option is called the "open universe". A similar development scenario is waiting for a flat universe when the density is equal to critical. Through the Gugol Years, the whole substance in the stars will prime, and the galaxies will load in darkness. Only planets, white and brown dwarfs will remain, and the clashes between them will be extremely rare.

However, even in this case, the metagalaxy is not eternal. If the theory of the great association of interactions is true, after 10 40, the components of the former stars protons and neutrons will be sprinkled. After approximately 10,000, gigantic black holes will evaporate. In our world only electrons, neutrinos and photons removed from each other for huge distances will remain. In a sense, it will be the end of time.

If the density of the universe is too large, then our world is closed, and the expansion is sooner or later changed by catastrophic compression. The universe will finish its life in a gravitational collapse in a certain sense it's even worse.

Calculation of the distance to the star according to the famous parallax.