Crib

Astronomy and aviation

Answers to the credit on astronomy. 1) Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies, their nature, origin. 2) The Universe is part of the material world, which is available to the study by astronomical means, corresponding to the level achieved.

Answers to the credit on astronomy.

1) Astronomy is studying The movement of celestial bodies, their nature, origin.

2) Universe - Part of the material world, which is accessed by the study by astronomical means, corresponding to the achieved level of science development. Also, this is the entire existing material world, limitless in time and space and infinitely diverse in the forms that matter in the process of its development.

Universe - All that exists.

Universe - All that we see with the help of devices.

3) Previously, constellations were called Flat part of the celestial sphere, which placed stars.

Now called constellations Cone (not circular), which includes everything inside it.

4) Currently, all the sky is conditionally divided into 88 sections having strictly certain boundaries - constellations.

5) Constellations: Large and small bear, Cassiopeia, Lira, Swan, Pegasus, Andromeda, Orion, Taurus, Winds, Gemini, Small and Big Dog, Voloplas, Virgo, Leo.

6) Heavenly Scope - Imaginary scope of how much larger radius, in the center of which is the eye of the observer.

7) How to make up star cards:

• the sphere is cut on thin strips, and then display it on the plane.
• find an angle deflected from the point of spring equinox, and are connected to the center of the universe.

9) Observed daily rotation of the heavenly sphere (takes place from east to west) - apparent phenomenon reflecting the actual rotation of the globe around the axis (from the west to the East).

11) the axis of the world - axis of rotation of the heavenly sphere.

12) if through the polar star (the constellation of a small bear) to spend a line, the parallel axis of the earth - then it will benorth Pole Earth.

13) True noon - The moment of the upper climax of the center of the Sun. Upper climax is the highest height that is achieved at the time of the passage of the shone through heavenly meridian.

14) True sunny day - The time interval between the two consecutive culmination of the center of the Sun.

15) The duration of true sunny day does not remain the same throughout the year (due to the uneven movement of the Sun on the ecliptic and its tilt to the celestial equator). Therefore, in everyday life, not true, butaverage sunny day, the duration of which is accepted constant.

16) World time - average time at zero or Greenwich Meridian.

17) Explanatory Time - The time of his central meridian. Each time zone extends along a longitude of 15º or 1 hour (only 24 belts).

18) Expandment of the best time:

T n \u003d t 0 + n; where t N. - Explanatory time; T.0 - World time.

T n -t λ \u003d n-λ; where t λ. - local time; λ - geographical longitude.

19) On the territory of the Russian Federation from January 19, 1992, the following procedure for calculating time was established: 1 hour is added to the belt time; Every year, the clock arrows are transferred for 1 hour ahead in the last Sunday of March at 2 am, and on the last Sunday of September (at 3 o'clock) the clock arrows are translated a 1 hour ago. Thus, summer time we have ahead of the waist for 2 hours. Summer time does not violate the usual rhythm of life, but it allows you to significantly save electricity consumed by lighting.

20) Moscow time - Local time in the capital of Russia, located in the second time zone. It is recommended as a single time for the Russian Federation.

21) Tropical Year - The time interval between the two successive passing of the Sun through the spring equinox, component of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds.

22) Sunny calendar - The score of long periods of time associated with the change of seasons of the year. The preparation of the calendar is difficult because the duration of the tropical year is incommensurable with the duration of the day.

23) In Julian calendar (Old style introduced in 46 BC Yulia Caesar) The average duration of the year was 365.25 days: three years contained 365 days, and leap - 366. This calendar is longer than tropical - for every 400 years the difference reaches 3 days for every 400 years .

The accumulated discrepancy was eliminated when in 1582 Dad Grigory the thirteenth introduced a new style (gregorian calendar). As a result of the reform, October 5, 1582 was the 15th of October. Years of type 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000 decided to consider simple, not leaps. Excluding the years of this type, all others, whose numbers are divided by 4, consider leaps. An error in one day accumulates in the Gregorian calendar (in which the duration of the year is 365,2425 days) for 3,300 years.

25) Stars - Glowing gas (plasma) balls like the sun. Food from a gas-dust medium (hydrogen and helium) as a result of gravitational condensation.

26) The difference between the stars from the planet It is that the planet ("wandering") is glowing with reflected sunlight, and the star radiates this light (self-evident star body).

27) In astronomy of antiquity The division of the world into two parts was made: earth and heavenly. Thought that there is a "hard ceiling" to which the stars are attached, and the land was taken for the fixed center of the universe.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe central position of the Earth in the universe was subsequently found by scientists of ancient Greecegeocentric systems of the world. Aristotle (384-322, Greek philosopher) noted that if the Earth had moved, then this movement could be detected by changing the position of the stars in the sky. Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century BC; Alexandrian Astronomer) developed a geocentric system of the world, according to which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and the "Sphere of Fixed Stars" move around a fixed land.

According to the teachings of Nikolai Copernicus (1473-1543; Polish astronomer), there is no land in the center of the world, but the sun. Only the moon is moving around the earth. The earth draws around the sun and rotates around his axis. At a very long distance from the sun, Copernicus placed the "Fixed Stars Sphere". This system was namedheliocentric.Jordan Bruno (1548-1600; Italian philosopher), developing Copernicus's teachings argued that there is no center in the universe and there can be no center that the sun is only the center of the solar system. He suggested that the stars were the same sun as our, and planets were moving around countless stars, many of which there is a reasonable life. In 1609, Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) first sent a telescope on the sky and made the discovery, clearly confirming Copernicus's teachings: he saw the mountains on the moon, he opened the four satellites of Jupiter, discovered the phases of Venus, opened the stains in the sun, found that various celestial bodies Inherent axial rotation. Finally, he discovered that the Milky Way was a lot of weak stars not distinguished by the naked eye. Consequently, the Universe is much grand than they thought before, and naively assume that she per night would make a full turn around a small land. In Austria, Johann Kepler (1571-1630) developed Copernicus's teachings, discovering the laws of motion of the planets. In England, Isaac Newton (1643-1727) published his famous law of global. In Russia, the teachings of Copernicus boldly supported M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), which opened the atmosphere on Venus, defended the idea of \u200b\u200bthe multiplicity of inhabited worlds.

28) Nikolai Copernicus(1473 - 1543) lived in Poland. He offered his system of the world, according to which there is no land in the center of the world, but the sun. Only the moon rotates around the earth, and the Earth is the third planet from the sun and rotates around it and its axis. The system proposed by them is called heliocentric. But Copernicus not only gave the correct scheme of the structure of the solar system, but also determined the relative distances (in units of the earth from the sun) planets from the Sun and calculated the period of their appeal around it.

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) Italian. Visually confirmed the doctrine of Copernicus. Finding the mountain on the moon, it established that the lunar surface is largely similar to the earth. He also opened 4 satellites of Jupiter; found that Venus like the moon changes its phases (therefore, it is a spherical body that shines with reflected sunlight); I found that the sun revolves around his axis, and also found spots on it. Finally, he found that the Milky Way is a lot of weak stars, not distinguished by the naked eye. The opening data allowed him to confirm the doctrine of Copernicus, and also argue that the universe is much more than it seemed before.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) - supported the teachings of Copernicus, opened the atmosphere on Venus, defended the idea of \u200b\u200bthe multiplicity of inhabited worlds.

Johann Kepleler. - Austrian (1571 - 1630) opened 3 basic laws of the movement of the planets:

• The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, in one of the focus of which the sun is located.
• The radius-vector of the planet in equal intervals describes equal areas.
• Squares of the systemic periods of two planets are treated as cubes of large semi-axes of their orbits.

29) Determination of the distance to bodies and their dimensions.

To determine the distance to bodies usedparallax method: In order to find out the distance to some body, you need to measure the distance to any available point (it is called the basis and within the solar system for it takes the equatorial radius of the Earth), the angle under which from the luminaries located on the horizon will be Basis is visible, called horizontal equatorial parallax, if found, then the distance is:

D \u003d r / sin p

R - Basis, P

Radar methodit is that a short-term impulse is sent to the luminaire, the reflected signal is taken and the time is measured. (1A.E. \u003d 149 597 868km).

Laser location methodsimilar to radar, but much more accurate.

Determination of the sizes of the bodies of the solar systemit is carried out by measuring the angle under which they are visible from the ground and the distance to the shine, so it turns out a linear radius:

R \u003d D * SIN R

R - Basis, P - horizontal parallax shining

30) Capler's laws:

1) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, in one of the focus of which the sun is located.

2) Radius-vector of the planet at equal intervals describes equal areas.

3) Squares of the systemic periods of circulation of two planets belong as cubes of large semi-axes of their orbits.

31) Earth:

• Dimensions: RCR. \u003d 6371km.
• Average density \u003d 5.5 * 1000 kg / cubic meters.
• Form: Ellipse, Equatorial radius\u003e Polar radius.
• The angle of inclination of the axis: 66 degrees 34 minutes.
• Features: The slope of the earth axis to the plane of the orbit. Preservation of axis direction in space.
• Orbit: Elliptical around the Sun, close to the circle.

32 ) Solar and lunar eclipses:

When the moon with its movement around the earth completely or partially overshadows the sun, occursolar eclipses.

Complete eclipse is possible because the visible diameters of the moon and the sun are almost the same. Partial eclipses occur when the lunar disc does not completely obscure the drive of the Sun, as well as in the areas of the lunar half.

When when driving around the earth, the moon falls into the cone of the earth's shadow occursfull lunar eclipse. If only part of the moon is immersed in the shadow, occurspartial lunar eclipse.

Eclipses are repeated at certain intervals of the time, called saros (due to the patterns in motion of the moon), it is approximately 18 years of 11 days. During each Saros, 42 solar and 28 lunar occurs. However, complete solar eclipses at this point of the earth's surface are observed no more than 200-300 years.

33) Moon:

• Dimensions: linear diameter is approximately 3476 km.
• Age: Approximately 4 billion years
• Structure: Cora - 60 km., Mantle -1000 km., Yord -750 km.
• Luminativity: not a self-luminous body, shines with reflected sunlight.
• The distance to the Earth: 384400 km.
• Surface Features: During the lunaries, the temperature on the surface changes by about 300K,
• Seas are also present on the surface (30%), mainland (70%) and ring craters (diameter 1 - 200 km.)
• Mechanical properties of soil: breeds predominate, similar to earth basalts, refractory metals, as well asSi, Fe, Cu, Mg, Al.
• Changing the surface with time: the era of active volcanism has long completed, the intensity of the meteorite bombing has decreased, although the lunomyroscale has now occur. But in general, for the last 2-3 billion years, the surface has almost changed.
• Features of movement: The moon is spinning around the Earth and its axis, as a result of which it is turned to Earth always with one hemisphere.
• Comparison with the dimensions of the Earth: 4 times less than the earth's radius and 81 times less than the mass.
• Double planet: Over the elliptical orbit around the Sun, the overall center of the mass of the "Earth-Moon" system is moving inside the ground. Therefore, this system is often referred to as the "double planet".
• Gravity in the moon: 0.16g.

34) Planets of the Earth Group:

Name	Mercury	Venus	Land	Mars
Location	0.39 A.E. from the sun	0,72		1,52
Average density	5.5 * 10000kg / cubic meters.
Features of motion		In the opposite direction of its movement around the Sun and about 243 times slower than the Earth	Move around the sun and its axis, the slope of the earth's axis to the plane of the orbit. Preservation of axis direction in space.	Move around the Sun and its axis in one direction
Satellites	Not	not	1 - Moon	2 - Phobos, Dimimos
Axis angle	89 gr.	86,6	66,5	65,5
Comparison of diameter with earth	Approximately 0.3 D Earth	Approximately 0.9 D Earth		Approximately 0.5 D Earth
Availability of a) atmosphere b) water c) life	a) traces b) NO	a) very dense	a) dense b) in the form of surface waters, glaciers, groundwater	a) sparse b) presumably as glaciers
Temperature		500k.
Features of surfaces	The surface is similar to the moon, a large number of craters, there are also seas and stretched mountain ledges	The most smooth surface of all the planets of the earth group. Also the presence of crater, as well as big mountain ledges	The presence of continents and oceans	The presence of crater, seas, continents, as well as mountain gorges and canyons, large mountain cones

35) Planets Giants:

Name	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune
Location	5.20 A.E. from the sun	9.54	19.19	30.07
Average density	1.3 * 1000 kg / cube. m.
Features of motion		Very rapid rotation around the Sun and your axis in one direction	Very rapid rotation around the Sun and your axis in different direction	Very rapid rotation around the Sun and your axis in one direction
Satellites	16: IO, Europe, Gamornad, Callisto ...	17 Tafia, Mimas, Titan	16 Miranda ...	8 Titon ...
Axis angle	87 degrees	63,5
Comparison of diameter with earth	Approximately 10.9 D Earth	Approximately 9.1 D Earth	Approximately 3.9 D Earth	Approximately 3.8 D Earth
The presence of radiation belts	Extends 2.5 million km. (The magnetic field of the planet catches the charged particles flying from the Sun, which form around the planet of the belt of high-energy particles)	Existence	Existence	Existence
The presence of rings and their features	Not solid rings thick up to 1 km., Stretch over the cloudy layer of planets by 60,000 km., Consist of particles and blocks.	the presence of rings	the presence of rings	the presence of rings

36) Small heavenly bodies

	Asteroids	Meteorites	Comet	Meteoras
Essence	Small planet	Crushed asteroids		Flash phenomenon of a small space (meteorite) body
Structure	Fe, Ni, Mg , as well as more complex organic communities based on carbon	Fe, Ni, Mg	Head, kernel (mix of frozen gases: ammonia, methane, nitrogen ...), tail (sparse substance, dust, metal particles)	Similar to build with comets
Features of motion	Moving around the Sun to the same side as big planets, have large eccentricity	Due to the attraction of the planets, the asteroids change orbit, faced, are crushed, and over time falls on the surface of the planet	Orbits - strongly elongated ellipses are closely suitable, and then removed by hundreds of thousands of A.E.	Moving on orbits of old, collapsed comet
Names	(more than 5500) but with established orbits: Lomonosov, Estonia, Yugoslavia, Cincinnati ... (also they have numbers)	(losing to Earth): Tungusky, Sikhote-Alinsky ...	Halley, Enke ...	NOT
Dimensions	Several dozen km. Small mass	Up to 200,000 tons.	Up to 0.0001 mass ground	Magnitude with pea
Origin	Cores former short-period planets	Crushed asteroids		Shards of collapsed comet
Impact on the ground	When they crushed, meteorite rains are possible, as well as the risk of collision with large asteroids	Loss in the form of meteorite rains, with the fall of the largest shock wave and crater formed	It is possible to collide with the Earth with a comet head (perhaps - Tungusky meteorite)	Entrance and destruction in the atmosphere
Methods of study	With the help of observatories and unmanned spacecraft	By collecting a meteorite substance	With observatories, as well as using specially running spacecraft	Visual, photographic, radar

37) Features of the structure of the solar system.

Around the Sun in the following order planets of the earth group are located:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

Further, the Pluto is located, which in size rather should be attributed to the planets of the Earth Group (less than the Earth), but since it is in significant removal, it cannot be attributed to any of the above groups.

In addition, comets are present in the solar system (rotating around the sun through a strongly elongated elliptical orbit) and individual asteroids.

38) Sun - Star

• Features: continuous thermonuclear reaction
• Dimensions: linear diameter \u003d 1.39 * 10 ^ 6 km.
• Mass: 2 * 10 ^ 30 kg
• Luminativity: 3.8 * 10 ^ 26 W. (The total energy emitted by the Sun per unit time multiplied by the distance from the ground to the Sun)

Activity - Complex of non-stationary formations in the atmosphere of the Sun (spots, torches, protuberans, outbreaks ...)

• Activity cycles: approximately 11 years
• Chemical composition of the substance: about 70 Chemical elements, the most common - hydrogen (70% of the mass) and helium (more than 30% of the mass)
• Physical condition of substance: the main state - plasma
• Energy sources: Thermonuclear reactions, as a result of the conversion of hydrogen in helium, a huge amount of energy is highlighted
• Structure:
• Stains: non-permanent, changeable parts of the photosphere, existing from several days to several months. The diameter reaches several tens of thousands of km., Consist of a kernel and a half, are a conical funnel with a depth of approximately 300 - 400 km.
• Protubereans: Giant bright protrusions or arches, as if resting on the chromosphere and breaking into the solar crown.
• Flashes: explosive processes, freeing the energy of the magnetic field of solar spots; last from 5 min. up to several hours and covered up to several tens of sq.m., accompanied by ultraviolet, x-ray and radio
• The structure and composition of the atmosphere:

1) Photosphere: a lower layer with a thickness of 300 - 400 km., Density of about 10 ^ -4 kg. / Cubic meter., Temperature is close to 6000K

2) Chromosphere: extends to a height of 10 - 14 km., The temperature as it rises from 5 * 10 ^ 3k to 5 * 10 ^ 4k

• The crown: extends to a distance of several solar radii from the edge of the sun, the temperature is approximately equal to 6000k, very high the degree of ionization.

39) The concept of star magnitude.

Star magnitude characterizes the stars brilliance, i.e. The illumination that it creates on Earth.

Absolute stars - star values \u200b\u200bthat would have the stars if they were at the same distance.

The visible star magnitude is a star magnitude, observed without taking into account differences in the distance.

40) Doppler effect, red shift.

The lines in the source spectrum approaching the observer are shifted to the purple end of the spectrum, and the line in the spectrum of the removable source is to the red.

41) Stars.

• Color and Temperature:

yellow - 6000K,

red - 3000 - 4000K,

white - 10 ^ 4 - 2 * 10 ^ 4,

bluish-white -3 * 10 ^ 4 - 5 * 10 ^ 5

in the infrared spectrum - less than 2000k

• Chemical composition: the most common - hydrogen and helium.
• The average density: the giants-extremely small - 10 ^ -3 kg / cubic meters, dwarfs - extremely large: up to 10 ^ 11kg / cubic meters.
• Dimensions: The giants are ten times greater than the radius of the sun, close to the sizes to the sun or less of it - dwarfs.
• The distance to the stars: the parallax method is used, using the average radius of the earth orbit in the base. AngleP. Such with the star would be visible the radius of the Earth orbit, located under 90 - annual pararallax.

r \u003d A / SIN PI , and - average radius of the earth orbit

• Distance to stars, equal to 1 second \u003d 1 parsec (206265a.)

Double stars - Stars related to the forces around the common center of mass.

New and supernova stars - Stars who have sharply increased shine, supernovae - exploding stars, with the most powerful explosions, the substance is scattered at a speed of up to 7000km / s, the residues of the shells are visible for a long time in the form of nebulae

Pulsary - Fast-expanding superlock stars, radius up to 10 km, and the masses are close to the mass of the Sun.

42) Black hole.

In the process of unlimited compression (in the process of forming a star), the star can turn into a black hole, i.e. The area that, as a result of a powerful field, does not release any radiation beyond the star.

43) galaxies.

• Views:

Elliptical - ellipses of various sizes and degrees of compression, the most simple in structure, the distribution of the stars in them evenly decreases from the center, there are almost no dust and gas.

Spirals are the most numerous galaxies.

Wrong - do not detect patterns in their structure.

Interactive - closely located, sometimes, as if penetrating each other or bound by bridges from glowing matter.

• Names: Andromeda Nebula, Big and Small Magelane Clouds ...
• Dimensions are determined by the formula:

D \u003d rd / 206265

where D. (parsek) -linear diameter,r. (Parsek) - Distance to Galaxy,d. (seconds of arc) - angular diameter.

• Mass are determined as follows:

M \u003d RV ^ 2 / g (from the world of world)

where m is the mass of the galaxy kernel,v. - linear speed of rotation

The mass of the whole galaxy per one or two orders of magnitude is greater than the mass of its kernel.

• Age: Approximately 1.5 * 10^ 10 years
• Ingredients: stars, star clusters, double and multiple stars, nebulae, interstellar gas and dust.
• The number of stars included: in our, for example, the order of trillion (10 ^ 12).
• Building: Most of the stars and diffuse matter have a lenzo-shaped volume, in the center of the Galaxy is the kernel.
• The movement of galaxies and their components: the rotation of the galaxy and stars around the central region, and with the removal from the center, the angular (decreases) and linear (increases toMax And then starts to decrease) speed.

45) Metagalaxy.

Large-scale structure: The universe has a cellular structure, in cells there are galaxies, and their substance is almost evenly distributed.

The expansion of the metagalaxy: manifests itself at the level of clusters and super-consumption of galaxies and is a mutual removal of all galaxies, moreover, there is no center from which the galaxies are missing.

46) The Big Bang Theory.

It is believed that the expansion of the metagalaxy could be caused by a colossal explosion of the substance that has a huge temperature and density, this theory is calledthe theories of a big explosion.

47) Origin of stars and chemical. Elements.

Stars arise during the evolution of galaxies, as a result of thickening clouds of diffuse matter, which were formed inside the galaxies. Stars consist mainly of 30 Chem. Elements, the mains of which are hydrogen and helium.

48) Evolution of Stars and Chem. Elements.

• Stage of compression Transformation of the clouds of diffuse matter into a spherical body with an increase in pressure and temperature.
• Stationary stage The gradual burnout of hydrogen (most of the life), the conversion of helium into more heavy elements, increasing heating and transformation into stationary supergiant.
• The last stage in the life of the stars depends on their mass: if the star is the size of our sun, but weigh 1-2 times more, then the upper layers leave the kernel over time, leaving "white dwarfs", which across the time swell. If the star is twice as much as the mass of the sun, then explodes as a supernova.

49) Energy stars.

The energy of the stars, like the energy of the Sun lies in continuously occurring inside the star thermonuclear reactions.

50) The age of galaxies and stars.

The age of galaxies is estimated at about 1.5 * 10 ^ 10 years, the age of the oldest stars is estimated at about 10 ^ 10 years.

51) The origin of the planets.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe planets is as follows: the planets and their satellites were formed from cold solid bodies who were part of the nebula, once surrounding the sun.

53) Units of measurement of astronomical values \u200b\u200band their values.

1 A.E. \u003d 149 600 000 km.

Parsek 1PK \u003d 206 265 AE.

54) Type of constellation changes Due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis around the sun. Therefore, an eye view of the constellation changes from the Earth.

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Astronomy tickets 11 class

Ticket number 1.

Visible movements shone, as a result of their own movement in space, the rotation of the Earth and its appeal around the Sun.

The land performs complex movements: rotates around its axis (T \u003d 24 hours), moves around the Sun (T \u003d 1 year), rotates with the galaxy (T \u003d 200 thousand years). It can be seen that all observations made from the ground are distinguished by the seeming trajectories. The planets move through the sky, then from the east to the west (direct movement), then from the west to the east (digital movement). Moments of direction shift are called standing. If you apply this path to the card, it turns out the loop. The loops dimensions are the less, the larger the distance between the planet and the ground. Planets are divided into the lower and top (bottom - inside the earth orbit: Mercury, Venus; Upper: Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto). All these planets also addate the same land around the Sun, but, thanks to the movement of the Earth, the loop-like motion of the planets can be observed. Mutual locations of the planets regarding the sun and land are called the configurations of the planets.

Planet configurations , Split. geometrich. The location of the planets towards the Sun and Earth. Some positions of the planets, visible from the Earth and measured relative to the Sun, are special. titles. On Ill. V. - Inner Planet, I- External Planet, E - Land, S. - The sun. When internal. The planet lies on one straight line with the sun, she is in connection. K.P. EV 1 S and ESV. 2 called lower and upper connections respectively. Externally Planet I is in the upper connection when it lies on one straight line with the sun ( ESI 4) and in confrontation When it lies in the direction opposite to the Sun (I 3 ES). The yield between the directions on the planet and the sun with a vertex on Earth, for example. I 5 ES, called elongation. For internal Planets Max, elongation occurs when angle EV 8 is 90 °; For external planets are possible elongation ranging from 0 ° ESI 4) to 180 ° (I 3 ES). When the elongation is 90 °, they say that the planet is in quadrature (I 6 ES, I 7 ES).

The period during which the planet makes turn around the sun in orbit, is called a ciderial (star) circulation period - T, the period of time between two identical configurations - the synodic period - S.

Planets move around the sun in one direction and make a complete turn around the Sun over the time interval \u003d Sidericional period

For inner planets

For external planets

S - Sideric period (relative to the stars), T - the synodic period (between phases), T Å \u003d 1 year.

Comets and meteorite bodies move through elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories.

Calculation of the distance to the Galaxy based on the Hubble Law.

H \u003d 50 km / sec * MPK - Permanent Hubble

Ticket number 2.

Principles for the definition of geographical coordinates on astronomical observations.

There are 2 geographic coordinates: geographic latitude and geographic longitude. Astronomy as practical science allows you to find these coordinates. The height of the world's pole over the horizon is equal to the geographical latitude of the observation location. Approximately geographical latitude can be determined by measuring the height of the polar star, because It comes from the North Pole of the world about 1 0. You can determine the latitude of the observation location in the height of the luminaries in the upper climax ( Culmination - the moment of the passage of shone through the meridian) by the formula:

j \u003d D ± (90 - h), depending on the south or north, it cultures from the zenith. H is the height of the shining, D - decline, J - latitude.

Geographical longitude is the second coordinate, counted from the zero Greenwich Meridian to the east. The earth is divided into 24 time zones, the difference in time is 1 hour. The difference of local times is equal to the difference of longitude:

T λ 1 - T λ 2 \u003d λ 1 - λ 2 T.O., having learned the difference between times in two points, the longitude of one of which is known, you can determine the longitude of another item.

The local time - This is solar time in this place of the Earth. At each point, the local time is different, so people live at the best time, i.e., by the time of the average meridian of this belt. Date change line runs in the East (Bering Strait).

Calculation of the temperature of the star based on data on its luminosity and sizes.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 3.

The reasons for changing the phases of the moon. The conditions of the offensive and the frequency of solar and lunar eclipses.

Phase In astronomy, the phase change occurs due to periodic. Changes in the conditions of illumination of celestial bodies in relation to the observer. F. Luna is due to a change in the mutual position of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun, as well as the fact that the moon shines the light reflected from it. When the moon is located between the sun and the ground on a straight line, connecting them, an unlit part of the lunar surface is drawn to the ground, so we do not see it. This F. - new moon. After 1-2 days, the moon moves away from this straight line, and a narrow lunar sickle is visible from the ground. During the new moon, the part of the moon, Kraya is not covered with straight sunshine, still visible in the dark sky. This phenomenon was called ash light. After a week, F. comes first quarter: The illuminated part of the moon is half the disk. Then comes full moon - The moon is again on the line connecting the sun and earth, but by Dr. side of the Earth. Visible illuminated full disk of the moon. Then the descending part begins and comes last quarter, those. Again, you can observe the illuminated half of the disk. Full period of shift F. Moon is called a synodic month.

Eclipse , Astronomical phenomenon, with a k-ROM, one celestial body completely or partially closes Dr. or the shadow of one body falls on dr. Solar 3. It happens when the earth falls into the shadow dropped by the moon, and the luna - when the moon falls into the shadow of the Earth. The shadow of the moon during sunny 3. consists of a central shadow and the surrounding one. Under favorable conditions, full lunar 3. May last 1 hour. 45 min. If the moon is not fully included in the shadow, the observer on the night side of the earth will see a private lunar 3. The angular diameters of the sun and the moon are almost the same, so complete solar 3. lasts only a few. minutes. When the moon is in suitogee, its angular sizes are slightly less than the sun. Sunny 3. It may occur if the line connecting the centers of the Sun and the Moon crosses the earth's surface. The diameters of the lunar shadow when falling on the ground can reach several. hundred kilometers. The observer sees that the dark lunar disc did not completely closed the sun, leaving his edge open in the form of a bright ring. This is so-called. Ring solar 3. If the angular dimensions of the moon are greater than the sun, the observer in the neighborhood of the point of intersection of the line connecting their centers with the earth's surface, will see full sunny 3. Because The Earth revolves around his axis, the moon - around the earth, and the Earth - around the Sun, the lunar shadow will quickly slide on the earth's surface from the point where she fell on it, to others, where she leaves her, and hesitates on earth * a full or ring lane 3. Private 3. You can observe when the moon lights up only a part of the sun. Time, duration and picture of solar or lunar 3. depend on the geometry of the earth-moon-sun system. Because of the tilt of the lunar orbit relatively * ELLIPTICS Solar and lunar 3. It does not occur in every new moon or full moon. Comparison of prediction 3. with observations allows you to clarify the theory of movement of the moon. Since the geometry of the system is almost exactly repeated every 18 years of 10 days, 3. It occur with this period, called Saros. Registration 3. Since ancient times, it allows you to check the effects of tides on the lunar orbit.

Definition of star map coordinates.

Ticket number 4.

Features of the daily movement of the Sun on various geographic latitudes at different times of the year.

Consider the one-year movement of the sun on the celestial sphere. The full turn around the Sun land commits a year, for one day the sun shifts on the ecliptic from the west to the east about 1 °, and for 3 months - 90 °. However, it is important at this stage that with the movement of the Sun on the ecliptic is accompanied by a change in its declination in the range from Δ \u003de (winter solstice) to δ \u003d + E (summer solstice), where E is the angle of inclination of the earth's axis. Therefore, during the year, the location of the daily parallel of the Sun is changing. Consider the average latitude of the northern hemisphere.

During the passage of the Spring Equinox Point (α \u003d 0 h), at the end of March, the decline of the sun is 0 °, so on this day the sun is almost in the heavenly equator, goes back in the east, rises in the upper climax to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ And comes in the West. Since the Heavenly Equator divides the heavenly sphere in half, then the sun is half a day over the horizon, half - under it, i.e. The day is equal to night, which is reflected in the title "Equinox". At the time of equinox, the tangent to the ecliptic at the site of finding the Sun is inclined to the equator to the maximum angle equal to E, therefore, the rate of increasing the decline of the Sun at this time is also maximum.

After the spring equinox, the decline of the Sun increases rapidly, so every day the whole most of the daily parallels of the Sun turns out to be above the horizon. The sun goes back all before, rises in the upper climax higher and comes later. The points of the sunrise and commerce are shifted to the north every day, and the day is extended.

However, the angle of inclination towards the ecliptic at the location of the Sun is reduced every day, and with it decreases the rate of inclination. Finally, at the end of June the sun reaches the northern point of the ecliptic (α \u003d 6 h, δ \u003d + e). By this moment, it rises in the upper climax to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ + E, goes back to about northeast, comes in the north-west, and the duration of the day reaches the maximum value. At the same time, the daily increase in the height of the sun in the upper climax is stopped, and the midday sun "stops" in its movement to the north. Hence the name "Summer Solstice".

After that, the decline of the Sun begins to decrease - first very slowly, and then faster. It goes back with each day later, it comes earlier, the points of sunrise and enter are moving back, south.

By the end of September, the Sun reaches the second intersection point of ecliptic with the equator (α \u003d 12 hours), and the equinox comes again, now is already autumn. Again, the rate of change in the decline of the Sun reaches the maximum, and it quickly shifts to the south. The night is becoming longer than the day, and every day the height of the sun in the upper climax decreases.

By the end of December, the Sun reaches the most southern point of the ecliptic (α \u003d 18 h) and its movement to the south is stopped, it stops again. This is a winter solstice. The sun rises in almost the southeast, comes in the southwest, and at noon rises in the south to the height H \u003d 90 ° - φ - e.

And after all starts first - the declination of the sun increases, the height in the upper climax grows, the day is lengthened, the points of sunrise and enter are shifted to the north.

Due to the scattering of light, the earth's atmosphere continues to be light and some time after sunset. This period is called twilight. At the depth of the sun dive under the horizon, dusk civil (-8 ° -12 °) and astronomical (H\u003e -18 °), at the end of which the brightness of the night sky remains approximately constant.

In summer, with d \u003d + e, the height of the sun in the lower climax is equal to H \u003d φ + E - 90 °. Therefore, the north of a latitude of ~ 48 ° .5 In the summer solstice, the sun in the lower climax is immersed under the horizon less than 18 °, and summer nights become light due to astronomical twilight. Similarly, at φ\u003e 54 ° .5 in the summer solstice, the height of the Sun H\u003e -12 ° - the navigation twilight is all night (Moscow comes into this zone, where it does not get dark for three months a year - from the beginning of May until the beginning of August). Another north, with φ\u003e 58 ° .5, in the summer the civil twilight is no longer stopped (there is a St. Petersburg with his famous "white nights").

Finally, on the latitude φ \u003d 90 ° - the daily parallel of the Sun during the solstice touches the horizon. This latitude is the northern polar circle. Another north of the sun for a while in the summer does not go beyond the horizon - the polar day comes, and in winter - the polar night comes.

And now consider more southern latitudes. As already mentioned, the south of the latitude φ \u003d 90 ° - E - 18 ° is always dark. With a further movement to the South, the Sun at any time of the year rises higher and higher, and the difference between parts of its daily parallels, which is above and under the horizon, is reduced. Accordingly, the duration of the day and night even during the solstice varies less and less. Finally, on the latitude j \u003d e, the daily parallel of the Sun for the summer solstice will be held through Zenit. This latitude is called the Northern Tropic, at the time of the summer solstice in one of the points on this latitude the sun is exactly in the zenith. Finally, at the equator, the daily parallels of the Sun are always divided by the horizon into two equal parts, that is, the day there is always equal to the night, and the sun happens in the zenith during equinoxies.

To the south of the equator, everything will be similar to the above described, only most of the year (and the south of the southern tropic - always) the upper climax of the Sun will occur north of the zenith.

Guidance on a given object and focusing telescope .

Ticket number 5.

1. Principle of operation and purpose of the telescope.

Telescope , Astronomical device for observing heavenly shining. A well-designed telescope is able to collect electromagnetic radiation in different spectrum ranges. In astronomy, the optical telescope is designed to increase the image and collecting light from weak sources, especially invisible to the naked eye, because Compared to it, it is capable of collecting more light and provide high angular resolution, so in an enlarged image you can see more details. In the telescope-refractor, a large lens is used, collecting and focusing light, and the image is considered using an eyepiece consisting of one or more lenses. The main problem in the design of refractors telescopes is chromatic aberration (color border around the image created by a simple lens due to the fact that the light of various wavelengths focuses at different distances.). It can be eliminated using a combination of convex and concave lenses, but the lenses are more than a certain limit size (about 1 meter in diameter) cannot be made. Therefore, at present, preference is given to the reflectors telescopes, in which a mirror is used as a lens. The first telescope reflector invented Newton in his scheme called newton system. Now there are several methods of observing the image: Newton systems, CASEGREEN (the position of the focus is convenient for registration and analysis of light using other devices, such as a photometer or spectrometer), kud (the scheme is very convenient, when bulky equipment is required for analysis), Maxutova ( Soz. Menisk), Schmidt (applies when it is necessary to make large-scale sky reviews).

Along with optical telescopes, there are telescopes that collect electromagnetic radiation in other bands. For example, various types of radio telescopes are widespread (with a parabolic mirror: fixed and full-turn; type Ratan-600; syphase; radio interferometers). There are also telescopes for registering X-ray and gamma radiation. Since the latter is absorbed by the earth's atmosphere, X-ray telescopes are usually installed on satellites or air probes. Gamma-astronomy uses telescopes located on satellites.

Calculation of the conversion period of the planet based on the third law of Kepler.

T s \u003d 1

a z \u003d 1 Astronomical unit

1 parsek \u003d 3.26 light year \u003d 206265 a. e. \u003d 3 * 10 11 km.

Ticket number 6.

Methods for determining distances to the bodies of the solar system and their size.

At first, the distance is determined to some available point. This distance is called the basis. The corner under which the Basis is visible from the inaccessible place is called pararallax . The horizontal parallax call the angle under which the radius of the Earth is visible from the planet, perpendicular to the beam of view.

p² - Pararallax, R² - angular radius, R - the radius of the Earth, R is the radius of the shone.

Radar method. It lies in the fact that a powerful short-term impulse is sent to the heavenly body, and then the reflected signal is taken. The speed of propagation of radio waves is equal to the speed of light in vacuum: known. Therefore, if you accurately measure the time that the signal was required to go to the celestial body and return back, it is easy to calculate the desired distance.

Radar observations make it possible to determine the distances to the celestial bodies of the solar system with great accuracy. This method refined distances to the Moon, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter.

Laser moon location. Soon after the invention of powerful light radiation sources - optical quantum generators (lasers) - experiences were carried out on the laser location of the moon. The laser location method is similar to radar, however, the measurement accuracy is significantly higher. Optical location makes it possible to determine the distance between the selected points of the lunar and the earth surface with an accuracy of centimeters.

To determine the size of the Earth, the distance between two points located on one meridian is determined, then the length of the arc l. , corresponding 1 ° - n. .

To determine the sizes of the bodies of the solar system, you can measure the angle under which they are visible to the earth observer - the angular radius of the luminaries R and the distance to the shining D.

Considering P 0 - horizontal pararallax shining and that the angles p 0 and R are small,

Determining the luminosity of the star based on data on its size and temperature.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 7.

1. Opportunities for spectral analysis and nonathmapper observations to study the nature of celestial bodies.

The decomposition of electromagnetic radiation by wavelengths in order to study them is called spectroscopy. Analysis of the spectra is the main method of studying astronomical objects used in astrophysics. The study of spectra gives information about temperature, speed, pressure, chemical composition and other esstricted properties of astronomical objects. According to the absorption spectrum (more precisely, according to the presence of certain lines in the spectrum), one can judge the chemical composition of the star atmosphere. By the intensity of the spectrum, you can determine the temperature of the stars and other bodies:

l MAX T \u003d B, B - constant wine. Much of the star can be found using the Doppler effect. In 1842, it found that the wavelength λ, adopted by the observer, is related to the wavelength of the radiation source by the ratio: where V is the projection of the source speed on the beam. Outdoor law received the name of the Doppler law :. The offset of the lines in the spectrum of the star relative to the spectrum of comparison in the Red Party says that the star is removed from us, the shift in the purple side of the spectrum is that the star is approaching us. If the lines in the spectrum change periodically, the star has a satellite and they turn around the common center of mass. The Doppler effect also makes it possible to estimate the speed of stars. Even when the radiating gas does not have a relative movement, the spectral lines emitted by individual atoms will be shifted relative to the laboratory value due to an erratic thermal motion. For the total mass of gas, this will be expressed in the broadening of the spectral lines. At the same time, the square of the Doppler's width of the spectral line is proportional to the temperature. Thus, the width of the spectral line can be judged by the temperature of the emitting gas. In 1896, the Dutch physicist Zeeman was opened the effect of splitting spectrum lines in a strong magnetic field. With this effect now it became possible to "measure" cosmic magnetic fields. A similar effect (it is called the Effect of Stark) is observed in the electric field. It manifests itself when a strong electric field occurs in the star briefly.

The earthly atmosphere delays a part of the radiation running from space. The visible light, passing through it, is also distorted: the air movement blurs the image of the celestial bodies, and the stars flicker, although in fact their brightness is unchanged. Therefore, from the middle of the 20th century, astronomers began to observe from space. Out of atmospheric telescopes are collected and analyzed X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared and gamma radiation. The first three can be studied only outside the atmosphere, the last partially reaches the surface of the Earth, but is mixed with IR planet itself. Therefore, it is preferable to carry out infrared telescopes into space. X-ray radiation reveals in the Universe region, where energy (for example, black holes) is particularly rapidly highlighted, as well as objects invisible in other rays, such as pulsars. Infrared telescopes allow you to explore thermal sources hidden for optics, in a large temperature range. Gamma-astronomy allows you to detect sources of electron-positron annihilation, i.e. Sources of large energies.

2. Definition on the star map The decline of the sun for a given day and calculating its height at noon.

h - Light height

Ticket number 8.

The most important directions and objectives of the study and development of outer space.

The main problems of modern astronomy:

There is no solution to many private problems of cosmogony:

· How the moon was formed, how rings were formed around planets-giants, why Venus rotates very slowly and in the opposite direction;

In Star Astronomy:

· There is no detailed model of the Sun, which can accurately explain all its observed properties (in particular, the thread neutrino from the kernel).

· There is no detailed physical theory of certain manifestations of star activity. For example, the reasons for the explosion of supernovae are not completely clear; It is not entirely clear why the narrow jets of gas are thrown out of the surroundings of some stars. However, there are particularly mysterious short outbreaks of gamma radiation, regularly occurring in various directions in the sky. It is not clear even if they are connected with the stars or with other objects, and at what distance from us are these objects.

In galactic and extragalactic astronomy:

· The problem of the hidden mass is not solved, consisting in the fact that the gravitational field of galaxies and clusters of galaxies is several times stronger than the observed substance can provide. Probably most of the substance of the Universe is still hidden from astronomers;

· There is no single theory of formation of galaxies;

· The main problems of cosmology are not solved: there is no completed physical theory of the birth of the Universe and its fate in the future is not clear.

Here are some questions to which astronomers hope to get answers in the 21st century:

· Does the next stars of the planet of the earthly type exist and do they have a biosphere (are they life for them)?

· What processes contribute to the start of the formation of stars?

· How are biologically important chemical elements, such as carbon, oxygen, are formed and apply to the galaxy?

· Are black holes with the source of energy of active galaxies and quasars?

· Where and when did the galaxies formed?

· Will the universe expand forever, or its expansion is changed by a collapse?

Ticket number 9.

The laws of the Kepler, their opening, value and border of applicability.

The three laws of movement of the planets regarding the Sun were brought by an empirically German astronomer Johann Kepler at the beginning of the XVII century. This became possible thanks to the many years of observations of the Danish astronomer quietly Brage.

First The law of Kepler. Each planet is moving along the ellipse, in one of the focus of which the sun is located ( e. = c. / a. where from - distance from the center of the ellipse to its focus, but - Big half, e - eccentricity ellipse. The more E, the more the ellipse differs from the circle. If a from \u003d 0 (focuses coincide with the center), then e \u003d 0 and ellipse turns into a circle with a radius but).

Second The law of Kepler (the law of equal areas). The radius of the planet in equal intervals describes isometric areas. Another wording of this law: the sectorial speed of the planet is constant.

The third The law of Kepler. Squares of periods of appeals planets around the Sun are proportional to cubes of large semi-axes of their elliptic orbits.

The modern formulation of the first law is supplemented as follows: in the unperturbed movement of the orbit of a moving body there is a second-order curve - ellipse, parabola or hyperbole.

Unlike the first two, the third law of Kepler is applicable only to elliptical orbits.

The speed of the planet in the perihelion:, where V c \u003d circular speed at r \u003d a.

Speed \u200b\u200bin Aflia:.

Kepler discovered its laws empirically. Newton brought the laws of Kepler from the law of world community. To determine the masses of heavenly bodies, a summary of the third law of the Kepler on any systems of contact tel is important. In generalized form, this law is usually formulated as follows: the squares of the periods T 1 and T 2 of the circulation of two bodies around the Sun, multiplied by the sum of the masses of each body (respectively, M 1 and M 2) and the Sun (M C) include as Cubes of large semi-axes A 1 and a 2 their orbits: . In this case, the interaction between the bodies M 1 and M 2 is not taken into account. If you neglect the masses of these bodies in comparison with the mass of the Sun, then the formulation of the third law, given by the Kepler himself:. The law of the Kepler can also be expressed as a relationship between the body of the orbit of the body with a mass M and a large half-axis of orbits A: . The third law of Kepler can be used to determine the mass of double stars.

Application on a star map of the object (planet, comet, etc.) according to the specified coordinates.

Ticket number 10.

Planets of the earth group: Mercury, Mars, Venus, Earth, Pluto. They have small sizes and masses, the average density of these planets several times more water density. They slowly rotate around their axes. They have few satellites. The planets of the earth group have solid surfaces. The similarity of the planets of the earth group does not exclude a significant difference. For example, Venus, unlike other planets, rotates in the direction opposite to its movement around the Sun, and 243 times slower than the Earth. Pluto is the smallest of the planets (Pluto diameter \u003d 2260 km, satellite - Charon 2 times less, approximately the same as the Earth-Moon system is "double planet"), but in physical characteristics it is close to this group.

Mercury. Mass: 3 * 10 23 kg (0.055 Earth) R orbits: 0.387 A.E. D Planets: 4870 km The properties of the atmosphere: the atmosphere is practically absent, helium and hydrogen of the Sun, sodium, highlighted by the superheated surface of the planet. Surface: Easy with crater, there is a set of 1300 km in diameter, called "Caloris Pool" Features: The day lasts two years.

Venus. Mass: 4.78 * 10 24 kg R orbits: 0.723 A.E. D Planets: 12100 km The composition of the atmosphere: mainly carbon dioxide with nitrogen and oxygen impurities, sulfur and plastic acid condensate clouds. Surface: Stony desert, relatively smooth, however, there are crater Features: surface pressure 90 times\u003e Ground, reverse orbit rotation, strong greenhouse effect (T \u003d 475 0 s).

Land . R orbits: 1 AE. (150 000000 km) R planets: 6400 km The composition of the atmosphere: nitrogen by 78%, oxygen by 21% and carbon dioxide. Surface: the most diverse. Features: a lot of water, the conditions necessary for the origin and existence of life. There are 1 satellite - moon.

Mars. Mass: 6.4 * 1023 kg R Orbit: 1.52 A.E. (228 million km) D Planets: 6670 km The composition of the atmosphere: carbon dioxide with impurities. Surface: Craters, Valley "Mariner", Mount Olympus - the highest in the system Features: plenty of water in polar hats, presumably earlier climate was suitable for organic life on a carbon basis, and the evolution of the climate of Mars is reversible. There are 2 satellites - Phobos and Dimimos. Phobos drops slowly on Mars.

Pluto / Charon.

Mass: 1.3 * 10 23 kg / 1.8 * 10 11 kg

R orbits: 29.65-49.28 A.E.

D Planets: 2324/1212 km

The composition of the atmosphere: Thin layer of methane

Features: Double planet, possibly planetsmal, orbit does not lie in the plane of other orbits. Pluto and Charon are always addressed to each other

Planets Giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

They have large sizes and masses (weight of Jupiter\u003e Mass of the Earth, 318 times, in volume - 1320 times). Planets giants are very quickly rotating around their axes. The result of this is a large compression. Planets are located far from the sun. They are distinguished by a large number of satellites (Jupiter -16, Saturn - 17, in uranium - 16, Neptune - 8). Feature of planet-giants - rings consisting of particles and blocks. These planets do not have solid surfaces, their density is small, consist mainly of hydrogen and helium. Gaseous hydrogen atmosphere goes into a liquid, and then into a solid phase. At the same time, rapid rotation and the fact that hydrogen becomes conductor of electricity, causes significant magnetic fields of these planets, which captured the charged particles flying from the Sun and form radiation belts.

Jupiter Mass: 1.9 * 10 27 kg R orbits: 5.2 ae D Planets: 143 760 km by Equator Composition: hydrogen with helium impurities. Satellites: There are plenty of water on Europe, a gamorn with ice, Io with a sulfur volcano. Features: A large red spot, almost a star, 10% of radiation - own, pulls the moon from us (2 meters per year).	Saturn. Mass: 5.68 * 10 26 R orbits: 9.5 AE. D Planets: 120 420 km Composition: hydrogen and helium. Satellites: Titan more Mercury, has an atmosphere. Features: Beautiful rings, low density, many satellites, magnetic field poles almost coincide with the axis of rotation.
Uranus Mass: 8.5 * 1025kg R orbits: 19.2 A.E. D Planets: 51 300 km Composition: methane, ammonia. Satellites: Miranda has a very difficult relief. Features: The axis of rotation is directed towards the Sun, does not radiate energetic energy, the largest angle of deviation of the magnetic axis from the axis of rotation.	Neptune. Mass: 1 * 10 26 kg R orbits: 30 A.E. D Planets: 49500 km Composition: methane, ammonia hydrogen atmosphere .. Satellites: Triton has a nitrogen atmosphere, water. Features: emits 2.7 times more absorbed energy.

Installation of the model of the celestial sphere for this latitude and its orientation on the sides of the horizon.

Ticket number 11.

Distinctive features of the moon and satellites planets.

Moon - the only natural satellite of the Earth. The surface of the moon is strongly heterogeneous. Main large-scale education - the sea, mountains, craters and bright rays maybe emissions of the substance. The sea, dark, smooth plains are depressed filled with frozen lava. The diameters of the biggest of them exceed 1000 km. Dr. Three types of formations are likely to be a consequence of the bombing of the lunar surface in the early stages of the existence of the solar system. The bombing lasted several. hundreds of millions of years, and the fragments settled on the surface of the moon and the planets. The fragments of asteroids by the diameter from hundreds of kilometers to the smallest dust particles formed ch. Details of the moon and the surface layer of rocks. Behind the bombing period was followed by filling in basalt lava seas generated by the radioactive heating of the lunar subsoil. Cosmic devices. The Apparatuses of the Apollo series was registered by the seismic activity of the moon, so on. L. oNOTRYATION. Samples of the lunar soil delivered to the Earth by astronauts showed that the age of L. 4.3 billion years is probably the same as the Earth consists of the same Him. Elements as the Earth, with the same as a ratio. On L. No and, probably, there has never been atm-ry, and there is no reason to say that there ever existed life there. According to the latest theories, L. was formed in the cuts of the collision of the planezimali with dimensions from Mars and the Young Earth. Temp-PA lunar surface reaches 100 ° with lunar day and drops to -200 ° C lunar at night. On L. There is no erosion, for the claim. The slow destruction of the cliffs due to alternate thermal expansion and compression and random sudden local catastrophes due to meteorite strikes.

The mass of L. is precisely measured by studying the orbits of its arts, satellites and refers to the mass of the earth as 1/81.3; Its diameter 3476 km is 1 / 3.6 diameter of the Earth. L. has the form of an ellipsoid, although three mutually perpendicular diameters differ no more than a kilometer. The period of rotation L. is equal to the period of appeal around the Earth, so, if not counting the effects of the libration, it is always turned to one side. Cf. The density is 3330 kg / m 3, the value is very close to the density of the main rocks lying under the earth's crust, and the force of gravity on the surface of the moon is 1/6 of the Earth. The moon is the nearest heavenly body to the ground. If the Earth and the Moon were point masses or rigid spheres, the density of which changes only from the distance from the center, and there would not be other celestial bodies, then the orbits of the moon around the earth would be an unchanged ellipse. However, the sun and in a significantly less planet is provided by gravitats. Impact on L., causing the perturbation of its orbital elements, therefore a large half-axis, eccentricity and inclination are continuously subjected to cyclic perturbations, oscillating relative to average values.

Natural satellites , Natural body, turning around the planet. In the solar system, more than 70 satellites of various sizes are known and new ones open all the time. The seven largest satellites are the moon, the four Galilean satellites of Jupiter, Titan and Triton. All of them have diameters exceeding 2500 km, and are small "worlds" with complex geol. history; Sow-rye has an atmosphere. All other satellites have dimensions comparable to asteroids, i.e. from 10 to 1500 km. They may consist of rock rocks or ice, the form varies from almost spherical to the wrong, surface - either ancient with numerous craters, or underwent changes associated with activity in depths. The size of the orbits lie in the range from less than two to several hundred radius of the planet, the period of circulation is from several hours before more than a year. They believe that some satellites were captured by the gravitational attraction of the planet. They have irregular orbits and sometimes turn in the direction opposite to the orbital motion of the planet around the Sun (so-called inverse traffic). S.E. orbits Can be strongly inclined to plane orbit planets or very elongated. Extended systems S.E. With regular orbits around four giants planets, probably arose from a gas-pepped cloud that surrounded the parental planet, like the formation of the planets in the proto-oarsal nebula. S.E. Size less than several. hundreds of kilometers have an irregular shape and probably formed with destructive collisions of larger bodies. In external The regions of the solar system they often appeal near the rings. Elements of orbits external. S.E., especially eccentricity, are susceptible to strong perturbations caused by the Sun. Several. Couples and even Trok S.E. have periods of circulation related by a simple ratio. For example, Jupiter's satellite Europe has a period almost equal to half of the period of Ganyada. Such a phenomenon is called resonance.

Determination of the visibility of the Mercury Planet according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 12.

Comets and asteroids. Basics of modern ideas about the origin of the solar system.

Comet , the heavenly body of the solar system, consisting of ice particles and dust moving along the strongly elongated orbits, means the distance from the sun looks weakly luminous spots of oval shape. As it approaches the Sun around this nucleus, a coma (almost spherical gas-pepped shell surrounding the comet's head is approached with its approaching to the sun. This "atmosphere", continuously blowing up with the solar wind, is replenished with gas and dust, catering from the kernel. Diameter K. reaches 100 thousand . km. Speeding speed of gas and dust is a few kilometers per second relative to the nucleus, and they are dissipated in the interplanetary space partly through the tail of the comet.) And the tail (gas flow and dust, which is formed under the action of light pressure and interaction with the solo wind from dissipating in the interplanetary The space of the comet's atmosphere. In most comet X. Appears when they approach the sun at a distance of less than 2 A. X. Always directed from the sun. Gas X. It is formed by ionized molecules thrown out of the kernel, under the influence of solar radiation has a bluish color, The distinct boundaries, a typical width of 1 million km, length - tens of millions of kilometers. Structure X. It may change significantly for several. hours. The speed of individual molecules ranges from 10 to 100 km / s. Dusty X. more blurred and twisted, and its curvature depends on the mass of dust particles. Dust is continuously released from the nucleus and is fond of gas flow.). The center, part of K. is called the core and is an ice-eyed body - the remains of huge clusters of ice planetsimals formed during the formation of the solar system. Now they are focused on the periphery - in the Oorta-Epic cloud. The middle mass of the kernel K. 1-100 billion kg, diameter 200-1200 m, the density of 200 kg / m 3 ("/ 5 water density). There are voids in the nuclei. These are frayondignations, consisting by one third of the ice and two A third of the dusty in-wa. The ice is mainly water, but there are impurities of other connections. With each return to the sun, the ice melts, the gas molecules leave the kernel and carries the particles of dust and ice, while spherical is formed around the kernel, commemorate. A long plasma tail, directed from the Sun, and a dust tail. The number of lost in-v depends on the amount of dust covering the kernel, and the distance from the sun in the perihelion. Data obtained in the resolution of the observations of the Jotto spacecraft. Comet Halley from a close distance, confirmed MN. Theory of structure K.

K. are usually called in honor of their openers with an indication of the year, when they were last observed. Are divided into short-period. And long-term game. Short-period. K. appeal around the Sun with a period of a few. years, in cf. OK. 8 years; The shortest period - a few more than 3 years - has K. Enke. These K. were captured by gravitats. The field of Jupiter and began to rotate on relatively small orbits. Typical of them has a distance in perichelia 1.5 AE. And completely destroyed after 5 thousand revolutions, generating a meteor flow. Astronomers observed the decay of K. Vesta in 1976 and K. * Biela. On the contrary, periods of circulation of long-term. K. can reach 10 thousand, or even 1 million years, and their aphelies can be on "/ z distances to the nearest stars. In the present, about 140 short-periods are known. And 800 long priority. K., and every year opens About 30 new K. Our knowledge of these objects is incomplete, because they are detected only when they approach the sun to the distance about 2.5 AE. It is assumed that around the Sun draws OK. Trillion K.

Asteroid (Asteroid), Small Planet, K-paradium has a close to a circular orbit lying near the plane of the ecliptic between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Aggregate A. Assigns the sequence number after determining their orbit, quite accurate so that A. "Not lost." In 1796, Franz. Astronomer Josephy-Rom Laland proposed to start searching for the "missing" planet between Mars and Jupiter predicted by the rule of Boda. On New Year's Eve 1801 Ial. Astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi during observations to compile a star catalog opened the core. It. The scientist Karl Gauss calculated her orbit. About 3,500 asteroids are known to the present, time. Radius of ceres, Pallades and Vesta - 512, 304 and 290 km, respectively, the rest are less. It is estimated in ch. Belt is approx. 100 million A. Their total mass is apparently about 1/2200 mass originally present in this area. The emergence of the model. A., perhaps, is associated with the destruction of the planet (traditional called Phaeton, Sov. The name is Olbers Planet) in the cuts of collisions with other bodies. The surfaces of the observed A. consist of metals and rock rocks. Depending on the composition of the asteroids are divided into types (C, S, M, U). The composition of the type U is not identified.

A. are also grouped by orbits elements, forming so-called. Hirayama family. Most A. has the period of circulation OK. 8 hour. All A. Radius is less than 120 km have an irregular form, the orbits are susceptible to gravitats. The effects of Jupiter. In the cuts in the distribution of A. on large semi-axes of orbit, there are gaps called the hatches of Kirkwood. A., who fell into these hatches, would have periods, multiple orbital period of Jupiter. The orbits of asteroids in these hatches are extremely unstable. Internal and external The edges of the A. belt lie in areas where this ratio is 1: 4 and 1: 2. A.

When the protocol is compressed, it forms a disc from the substance surrounding the star. A part of the substance of this disk falls back to the star, obeying the strength of gravity. Gas and dust, which remain in the disk, gradually cooled. When the temperature drops low enough, the disk substance begins to assemble into small clots - foci of condensation. So the planezimali arise. In the process of forming a solar system, part of the planezimals collapsed as a result of collisions, while others were combined to form planets. In the outer part of the solar system, large planetary kernels were formed, which were able to keep a certain amount of gas in the form of a primary cloud. Heavier particles were held by attraction of the sun and under the influence of tidal forces for a long time could not form in the planet. This was the beginning of the formation of "Gaza Giants" - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They, in all likelihood, have their own mini-discs from gas and dust, of which the moon and rings were eventually formed. Finally, in the internal solar system of solid, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are formed.

Determination of the visibility of the planet Venus according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 13.

Sun, as a typical star. His main characteristics.

The sun , the central body of the solar system, is a hot plasma ball. The star around which the Earth turns. The usual star of the main sequence of spectral class G2, a self-losing gas mass, consisting of 71% of hydrogen and 26% of helium. The absolute star value is +4.83, the effective surface temperature of 5770 K. In the center of the sun it is 15 * 10 6 k, which provides pressure capable of withstanding the power of gravity, which on the surface of the Sun (photosphere) is 27 times more than on Earth. Such a high temperature occurs due to thermonuclear hydrogen conversion reactions in helium (proton-proton reaction) (energy output from the surface of the photosphere of 3.8 * 10 26 W). The sun is a spherically symmetric body in equilibrium. Depending on the change in the physical conditions, the sun can be divided into several concentric layers, gradually passing into each other. Almost all the energy of the Sun is generated in the central region - kernel where the reaction of thermonuclear synthesis flows. The kernel occupies less than 1/1000 of its volume, the density is 160 g / cm 3 (the density of the photosphere is 10 million times less than the density of water). Due to the enormous mass of the Sun and the opacity of its substance, radiation comes from the kernel to the photosphere very slowly - about 10 million years. During this time, the frequency of X-ray radiation is reduced, and it becomes visible light. However, neutrinos formed in nuclear reactions are freely leaving the sun and in principle ensure the direct receipt of information about the kernel. The discrepancy between the observed and predicted theory of the thread of neutrino spawned serious disputes about the inner structure of the Sun. Over the past 15% of the radius there is a convective zone. Convective movements also play a role in transferring magnetic fields generated by currents in its rotating internal layers, which is manifested in the form of solar activity Moreover, the strongest fields are observed in sun spots. Outside the photosphere there is a solar atmosphere, in which the temperature reaches the minimum value of 4200 K, and then increases again due to the dissipation of shock waves generated by subcrimpheric convection, in the chromosphere, where it sharply increases to the value of 2 * 10 6 K, characteristic of the crown. The high temperature of the latter leads to the continuous expiration of the plasma substance into the interplanetary space in the form of a solar wind. In some areas, the magnetic field tension can increase and increase. This process is accompanied by a whole complex of solar activity. These include solar flares (in chromosphere), protuberans (in the solar crown) and coronal holes (special crown areas).

The mass of 1.99 * 10 30 kg, the average radius, determined by approximately a spherical photosphere, is 700,000 km. This is equivalent to 330,000 masses and 110 land radii, respectively; The sun can fit 1.3 million such bodies like the Earth. The rotation of the Sun causes the movement of its superficial formations, such as solar spots, in the photoosphere and layers located above it. The average rotation period is 25.4 days, and at the equator it is 25 days, and on the poles - 41 days. The rotation causes the compression of a solar disc, which is 0.005%.

Determining the visibility of the planet Mars according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 14.

The most important manifestations of solar activity, their connection with geophysical phenomena.

Solar activity is a consequence of the convection of the middle layers of the star. The reason for this phenomenon is that the number of energy coming from the kernel is much more than the heat conduction. Convection causes strong magnetic fields generated by currents in the convecting layers. The main manifestations of solar activity, affecting the Earth, are solar spots, sunshine, protuberances.

Solar spots Education in the sun photosphere was observed since ancient times, and at present, they are considered to be the areas of the photosphere with the pace for 2000 to the lower than in the surrounding, due to the presence of a strong magnetic field (approx. 2000 HS). S.P. Consist from a relatively dark center, parts (shadows) and brighter fibrous half. The gas flow from the shadow in the half-length is called the Evershred effect (V \u003d 2km / s). Number S.P. and their appearance change during the 11-year solar activity cycle, or solar spots cycle, which is described by the Schupeler's law and is graphically illustrated by a butterfly diagram of mounder (moving spots in latitude). Zurich's relative number of solar spots Indicates the total surface area covered by S.P. The main 11-year cycle is superimposed long-period variations. For example, S.P. Change Magn. Polarity for a 22-year-old solar activity cycle. But the naib, the striking example of long-period variations is a minimum. Mounty (1645-1715), when S.P. absent. Although it is generally recognized that the variations of the number S.P. Defined the diffusion of the magnetic field from rotating solar subsoils, the process is not yet understood to the end. The strong magnetic field of solar spots affects the field of the earth causing interference with radio communications and polar radiance. There is several. irrefutable short-period effects, approval of the existence of long priority. The links between the climate and the number of S.P., especially the 11-year-old cycle, is very controversial, which is due to the difficulties of compliance with the conditions, which are necessary when conducting accurate statistical data analysis.

sunny wind The expiration of high-temperature plasma (electrons, protons, neutrons and hadrons) of the solar crown, radiation of intense waves of a radio spectra, X-ray rays into the surrounding space. Forms so-called. Heliosphere, stretching at 100 A.E. from the sun. Sunny wind is so intense that it is capable of damaging the external layers of comet, causing the appearance of "tail". S.V. Ionizes the upper layers of the atmosphere, so the ozone layer is formed, the polar radiances causes and increasing the radioactive background and the interference of the radio communication in the dispensing places of the ozone layer.

The last maximum of solar activity was in 2001. Maximum solar activity means the largest number of spots, radiation and protuberances. It has long been established that the change in solar activity The Sun influences the following factors:

* epidemiological situation on Earth;

* Number of different kind of natural disasters (typhoon, earthquake, flood, etc.);

* on the number of automotive and railway accidents.

The maximum of all this falls on the years of the active sun. As the scientist Chizhevsky installed, the active sun affects human well-being. Since then, periodic predictions of human well-being are drawn up.

2. Determination of the visibility of the planet Jupiter according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 15.

Methods for determining distances to stars, units of distance and communication between them.

Pararallax method is used to measure the distance to the bodies of the solar system. The radius of the Earth turns out to be too small to serve as a basis for measuring the parallact displacement of the stars and distances to them. Therefore, use the one-year parallax instead of horizontal.

The one-year parallax star call an angle (P), under which from the star could be seen a large part of the earth orbit if it is perpendicular to the beam of view.

a - big part of the earth orbit,

p is a one-year parallax.

Also uses a unit of a distance of parsek. Parsek is the distance from which the large semi-axis of the earth orbit, the perpendicular beam of view is visible at an angle of 1².

1 parsek \u003d 3.26 light year \u003d 206265 a. e. \u003d 3 * 10 11 km.

Measuring the one-year parallax can be reliably set the distance to the stars that are 100 parses or 300 s. years.

If absolute and visible stellar values \u200b\u200bare known, then the distance to the star can be determined by the formula LG (R) \u003d 0.2 * (M-M) +1

Determining the visibility of the moon according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 16.

The main physical characteristics of stars, the relationship of these characteristics. Star equilibrium conditions.

The main physical characteristics of the stars: the luminosity, absolute and visible stellar sizes, weight, temperature, size, spectrum.

Luminosity - Energy emitted by a star or other celestial body per unit of time. Usually given in units of the luminosity of the Sun, expressed by the LG formula (L / LC) \u003d 0.4 (Mc - M), where L and M - the luminosity and the absolute star of the source, LC and MC are the corresponding values \u200b\u200bfor the Sun (MC \u003d +4 , 83). It is also determined by the formula L \u003d 4πr 2 σt 4. Known stars, the luminosity of which is many times greater than the luminosity of the sun. The luminosity of Aldebaran in 160, and the Rigel is 80,000 times more than the sun. But the vast majority of stars have luminosity comparable with solar or less it.

Star Value - Star brightness measure. Z.V. Does not give a true idea of \u200b\u200bthe power of the star radiation. Close to Earth weak star may look brighter than a distant bright star, because The radiation flow received from it decreases inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Visible Z.V. - Glitter of the star, which sees the observer, looking at the sky. Absolute Z.V. - measure of true brightness, is the level of shine of the star, which would have been in a distance of 10 pcs. Hipparch invented the system visible Z.V. in 2nd. BC. The stars were assigned numbers depending on their visible brightness; The brightest stars were the 1st values, and the weakest - 6th. All R. 19th century This system has been modified. Modern scale Z.V. was established by determining Z.V. Representative sample of stars near Sev. Poles of the world (sowing. Polar row). They were determined by Z.V. All other stars. This is a logarithmic scale, on the first star of the 1st magnitude 100 times brighter than the stars of the 6th magnitude. As the measurement accuracy increases, the tenths had to be introduced. The brightest stars are brighter than the 1st size, and some even have negative stellar values.

Star Mass - The parameter directly defined only for components of double stars with known orbits and distances (M 1 + m 2 \u003d R 3 / T 2). So There are only few tens of stars installed mass, but for a much larger number, the mass can be determined from the dependence of the mass - the luminosity. Masses more than 40 solar and less than 0.1 solar is very rare. Most of most stars less solar. The temperature in the center of such stars cannot reach the level in which the reactions of nuclear synthesis begin, and the source of their energy is only the compression of Kelvin - Helmholtz. Such objects are called brown dwarfs.

Mass-luminosity Relationship found in 1924 by Eddington The ratio between the luminosity L and the star mass M. The ratio has the form L / LC \u003d (M / MS) A, where LC and MS - the luminosity and the mass of the sun, respectively, value but Typically lies in the range of 3-5. The ratio follows from the fact that the observed SV-VA of normal stars are determined mainly by their mass. This ratio for star-dwarfs is well consistent with observations. It is believed that it is also valid for supergiants and giants, although their mass is poorly amenable to direct measurements. The ratio is not applicable to white dwarfs, because overlaps their luminosity.

Star temperature - Temperature of some area of \u200b\u200bthe star. Refers to the number of the most important physical characteristics of any object. However, due to the fact that the temperature of various areas of the stars is different, as well as due to the fact that the temperature is a thermodynamic value, which depends on the flow of electromagnetic radiation and the presence of various atoms, ions and nuclei in some area of \u200b\u200bthe starry atmosphere, all these differences are combined In an efficient temperature, closely related to the emission of the star in the photoosphere. Effective temperature , The parameter characterizing the total amount of energy emitted by the star from the unit of its surface area. This is the unambiguous method of describing the stellar temperature. E.T. It is determined through the temperature of an absolutely black body, which, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, emitted the same power per unit area of \u200b\u200bthe surface as the star. Although the star spectrum in the details differs significantly from the spectrum of absolutely black body, the nonetheless temperature characterizes the gas energy in the outer layers of the star photosphere and allows using the law of wing displacement (λ max \u003d 0.29 / t), determine which wavelength There is a maximum of star radiation, and therefore the color of the star.

By size Stars are divided into dwarfs, subcarliki, normal stars, giants, subgigans and supergiant.

Spectrum The stars depends on its temperature, the pressure of the gas density of its photosphere, the power of the magnetic field and chemical. composition.

Spectral classes , the classification of stars according to their spectra (primarily the software relates, the intensities of spectral lines), first introduced ITAL. Astronomer sects. Introduced alphabetic designations, which were modified as knowledge of internal knowledge expands. Star structure. The color of the star depends on the pace of its surface, so in the SCU. Spectral classification of Draper (Harvard) S.K. Located in descending order of tempo:

Herzshprunga - Resevella chart , a chart that allows you to identify the two main characteristics of stars, expresses the relationship between the absolute star size and temperature. Named in honor of the Danish Astronomer of the Herzshprung and American Astronoma, Resessla, who published the first chart in 1914. The hottest stars lie in the left chart, and the stars of the highest luminosity are at the top. From the upper left corner to the lower right passes main sequence Reflective evolution of stars, and ending in dwarfs. Most stars belong to this sequence. The sun also applies to this sequence. Above this sequence are located in the specified procedure, subgigans, supergigant and giants, below - subcarliki and white dwarfs. These groups of stars are called luminosity classes.

Equilibrium conditions: As you know, the stars are the only objects of nature, within which uncontrollable thermonuclear synthesis reactions occur, which are accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy and determine the temperature of the stars. Most stars are in a stationary state, i.e. they do not explode. Some stars explode (the so-called new and supernovae stars). Why basically stars are in equilibrium? The power of nuclear explosions in stationary stars is backed by force, which is why these stars retain balance.

Calculation of linear dimensions of the shone at known angular sizes and distance.

Ticket number 17.

1. The physical meaning of the Stefan-Boltzmann law and its application to determine the physical characteristics of stars.

Stephen Boltzmann law The ratio between the total radiation power of the absolutely black body and its tempo. The total power of the unit area of \u200b\u200bradiation in W on 1 m 2 is given by the formula P \u003d σ t 4, Where σ \u003d 5.67 * 10 -8 W / m 2 K 4 - constant Stefan-Boltzmann, T is the absolute temperature of the absolute black body. Although astronomer, objects rarely emit, as an absolutely black body, their radiation spectrum is often a successful model of the spectrum of a real object. The dependence on the temperature in the 4th degree is very strong.

e - Radiation Energy Star Surface

L - star luminosity, R is a star radius.

With the help of the Finefan-Boltzmann formula and the law of wine determine the wavelength, which accounts for a maximum of radiation:

l MAX T \u003d B, B - Permanent Wine

You can proceed from the opposite, that is, using the luminosity and temperature to determine the size of the stars

2. Determination of the geographical latitude of the observation location at a given height of the shone in the climax and its declination.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 18.

Variables and nonstationary stars. Their meaning to study the nature of stars.

The glitter of stars variable changes with time. Now it is known to OK. 3 * 10 4. P.Z. They are divided into physical, the brilliance of which is changing due to the processes in them or about them, and optical statements, where this change is due to rotation or orbital movement.

The most important types of physical. P.Z.:

Pulsating - Cefeida, Whale world stars, semi-environment and improper red giants;

Eusphet (explosive) - stars with shells, young wrong variables, incl. Stars type T Torets (very young irregular stars associated with diffuse nebulae), supergigants of the Hubble type - Seedage (hot high-luminosity supergingants, the brightest objects in galaxies. They are unstable and probably are sources of radiation near the luminosity of Eddington, which occurs "Infringement" of stars shells. Potential supernovae.) Flambling red dwarfs;

Cataclysmic - new, supernova, symbiotic;

X-ray double stars

Specified P.Z. include 98% of well-known physical P.Z. Optical includes eclipse-double and rotating such as pulsars and magnetic variables. The sun refers to the rotating, because His star magnitude is poorly changing when sunny spots appear on the disk.

Among the pulsating stars are very interesting cepheids, named so named one of the first open variables of this type - 6 Cefhea. Cefeida is the stars of high luminosity and moderate temperature (yellow supergiant). During the evolution, they acquired a special structure: at a certain depth, a layer arose, which accumulates the energy coming from the bowels, and then again gives it. The star is periodically compressed, warming up, and expands, cooling. Therefore, the radiation energy is absorbed by the star gas, ionazuya it, then it is released again when the electrons are captured when the gas is cooling, radiating light quanta. As a result, the brilliance of Cefie is changing, as a rule, several times with a period of several days. Cefete play a special role in astronomy. In 1908, American astronomer Henrietta Livitt, who studied Cefeid in one of the nearest galaxies, a small magtel cloud, drew attention to the fact that these stars turned out to be the brightest, the period of changing their gloss. Sizes of small magtels clouds are small compared to the distance to it, and this means that the difference in visible brightness reflects the difference in the luminosity. Thanks to the found Livitt dependence period - the luminosity is easy to calculate the distance to each cefida, measuring its average shine and period of variability. And since the supergiantes are well noticeable, cepheids can be used to determine the distances even to relatively distant galaxies, in which they are observed. There is also the second reason for the special role of Cefeide. In the 60s. Soviet astronomer Yuri Nikolayevich Efremov found that the longer period of Cefeid, the younger than this star. Depending on the period - age is not difficult to determine the age of each cefeth. Selecting the stars with the maximum periods and studying the stars in which they enter, astronomers explore the youngest structures of the Galaxy. Cepheids More than other pulsating stars deserve the names of periodic variables. Each next cycle of shine changes is usually very accurately repeated by the previous one. However, there are also exceptions, the most famous of them is a polar star. It has long been discovered that it refers to cepheidam, although it changes the shine in fairly minor limits. But in recent decades, these oscillations began to fond, and by the mid-90s. The polar star almost ceased to pulsate.

Stars with shells , Stars, continuously or with irregular intervals, dumping gas ring from the equator or spherical shell. 3. C O. - Giants or stars-dwarfs of spectral class B, fast and close to the limit of destruction. Reset the shell is usually accompanied by a drop or increasing gloss.

Symbiotic stars , Stars whose spectra contain emission lines and combine the characteristic features of the red giant and the hot object - white dwarf or accretion disk around such a star.

RR Lyra Stars are presenting another important group of pulsating stars. This old stars are about the same mass as the sun. Many of them are in the ball star clusters. As a rule, they change their shine on one star magnitude approximately per day. Their properties, as well as the properties of Cefeide, are used to calculate astronomical distances.

R North Crown And the stars like her behave completely unpredictable way. Usually this star can be seen with the naked eye. Every few years, its shine falls to about the eighth star magnitude, and then gradually grows, returning to the previous level. Apparently, the reason here is that this star-supergiant discharges a carbon clouds, which condenses into grains, forming something like soot. If one of these thick black clouds takes place between us and the star, it flaps the light of the stars until the cloud dispels in space. Stars of this type are made of thick dust, which has an important meaning in areas where stars are formed.

Flashing stars . Magnetic phenomena in the sun are the cause of solar spots and solar flares, but they cannot significantly affect the brightness of the sun. For some stars - red dwarfs - it is not: on them, such outbreaks reach huge scales, and as a result, the light radiation can increase on a whole stellar value, and even more. The closest star, proxima of the Centaur, is one of these flashing stars. These light emissions can not be predicted in advance, but they continue only a few minutes.

The calculation of the declination of the shone according to its height in the climax on a certain geographic latitude.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 19.

Double stars and their role in determining the physical characteristics of stars.

A double star, a couple of stars associated with one system by the forces of gravity and aroused around the common center of gravity. Stars constituting a double star are called its components. Double stars are very common and divided into several types.

Each component of a visual-dual star is clearly visible to the telescope. The distance between them and mutual orientation varies slowly with time.

Elements of the elaborate-dual alternately blocked each other, so the glitter system temporarily weakens, the period between two gloss changes is equal to half the orbital period. The angular distance between the components is very small, and we cannot observe them separately.

Spectral-double stars are detected by changes in their spectra. With the mutual appeal, the star is periodically moving towards land, then from the Earth. According to the Doppler effect in the spectrum you can determine changes in motion.

Polarization doubles are characterized by periodic changes in the polarization of light. In such stars systems, with their orbital motion, gas and dust are illuminated in the space between them, the angle of falling light on this substance changes periodically, while the dissipated light is polarized. Accurate measurements of these effects allow calculating orbits, Star Mass Relations, Sizes, Speed \u200b\u200band Distance Between Components . For example, if the star is simultaneously eclodious and spectral-dual, then you can determine mass of each star and the tilt of the orbit . By the nature of the gloss change in the moments of eclipses, you can determine the relative sizes of stars and study the structure of their atmospheres . Double stars serving the radiation source in the X-ray range are called X-ray double. In some cases, there is a third component that turns around the center of the mass of the dual system. Sometimes one of the components of the double system (or both), in turn, can be double stars. The close components of the double star in the triple system can have a period of several days, while the third element may contact around the common center of mass of the closer pair with a period of hundreds and even thousands of years.

Measurement of the speeds of the stars of the double system and the application of the World Act is an important method for determining the mass of stars. The study of double stars is the only direct method for calculating the star masses.

In the system of closely arranged double stars, the mutual forces of gravity seek to stretch each of them, give her the shape of a pear. If the burden is strong enough, the critical moment comes when the substance begins to flow from one star and fall to another. There is some area in the form of three-dimensional eight around these two stars, the surface of which is a critical border. These two pear shapes, each around their stars, are called Rosha's cavities. If one of the stars grows so much that Rosha fills his cavity, then the substance is rushed from it to another star at that point where the cavities come into contact. Often, the star material does not go straight on the star, and first twists, forming the so-called accretion disk. If both stars expanded so much that they filled their rosh cavities, then a contact double star arises. The material of both stars is mixed and merges into the ball around two star nuclei. Since ultimately all the stars swell up, turning into the giants, and many stars are double, then the interacting double systems - the phenomenon is incredible.

The calculation of the height of the shone in the climax of a known decline for a given geographic latitude.

H \u003d 90 0 - +

h - Light height

Ticket number 20.

The evolution of stars, its stages and finite stages.

Stars are formed in interstellar gas-pepped clouds and nebulae. The main force, "forming" stars - gravity. Under certain conditions, a very sparse atmosphere (interstellar gas) begins to shrink under the action of gravity forces. The gas cloud is compacted in the center, where heat allocated during compression - the protocon is emitted, emitting in the infrared range. The protocol is heated under the action of substances falling on it, and the reactions of nuclear synthesis are beginning with energy isolation. In such a state, this is a variable star type T Torch. The remains of the cloud are scattered. Next, gravitational forces are tightened by hydrogen atoms to the center, where they merge, forming helium and highlighting energy. Growing pressure in the center prevents further compression. This is a stable phase of evolution. This star is a star sequence star. The luminosity of the star is growing as it seals and heating its kernel. The time during which the star belongs to the main sequence depends on its mass. The sun is approximately 10 billion years, however, the stars are much more massive than the Sun exists in stationary mode only a few million years. After the star spends the hydrogen contained in its central part, large changes occur inside the star. Hydrogen starts to break off not in the center, but in the shell, which increases in size, swells. As a result, the size of the star itself increases sharply, and its surface temperature drops. It is this process that gives rise to red giants and supergiants. The final stages of the star evolution are also determined by the mass of the star. If this mass does not exceed the solar more than 1.4 times, the star stabilizes, becoming white dwarf. Catastrophic compression does not occur due to the main property of electrons. There is such a degree of compression at which they begin to repel, although there is no longer any source of thermal energy. This happens only when the electrons and atomic nuclei are compressed incredibly much, forming extremely dense matter. White dwarf with a mass of the Sun in volume is approximately equal to the ground. White dwarf gradually cools, ultimately turning into a dark ball of radioactive ash. According to astronomers, at least a tenth of all the galaxy stars are white dwarfs.

If the mass of the shrinking star exceeds the mass of the sun by more than 1.4 times, then such a star, reaching the stage of white dwarf, will not stop. Gravitational forces in this case are so great that electrons are pressed into atomic nuclei. As a result, the protons turn into neutrons capable of laying down to each other without any intervals. The density of neutron stars is superior to even the density of white dwarfs; But if the mass of the material does not exceed 3 solar masses, neutrons, like electrons, are capable of preventing further compression. A typical neutron star has in the diameter just from 10 to 15 km, and one cubic centimeter of its substance weighs about a billion tons. In addition to huge density, neutron stars have two more special properties that allow them to detect, despite such small dimensions: this is a rapid rotation and a strong magnetic field.

If the mass of the star exceeds 3 masses of the Sun, then the final stage of its life cycle is probably a black hole. If a lot of stars, and, consequently, the strength of gravity is so great, the star is subject to a catastrophic gravitational compression, which no stabilizing forces can withstand. The density of the substance during this process tends to infinity, and the radius of the object is to zero. According to the theory of Einstein's relativity, in the center of the black hole there is a singularity of space-time. The gravitational field on the surface of the compressive star is growing, so the radiation and particles it becomes more difficult to leave it. In the end, such a star turns out to be under the horizon of events, which can be clearly represented as a unilateral membrane, transmitting substance and radiation only inside and not producing anything out. A collapse star turns into a black hole, and it can only be detected by a sharp change in the properties of space and time near it. The radius of the horizon of events is called Schwarzschald radius.

Stars with a mass of less than 1.4 solar at the end of the life cycle slowly discharge the upper shell, which is called the planetary nebula. More massive stars, which turn into a neutron star or a black hole, first explode like supernovae, their shine in a short time increases by 20 values \u200b\u200band more, releases energy more than the sun radiates for 10 billion years, and the remnants of the exploded stars are scattered at a speed of 20 000 km per second.

Observation and sketching of the positions of solar spots with a telescope (on the screen).

Ticket number 21.

Composition, structure and sizes of our galaxy.

Galaxy , Star system to which the sun belongs. The galaxy contains at least 100 billion stars. Three main components: central thickening, disk and galactic halo.

The central thickening consists of old stars of the population of type II (red giants), located very tightly, and in its center (kernel) there is a powerful source of radiation. It was assumed that the core is a black hole, initiating the observed powerful energy processes accompanied by radiation in the radio spectra. (The gas ring rotates around the black hole; hot gas, breaking from its indoor edge, falls on a black hole, while the energy that we observe are distinguished.) But recently, the outbreak of visible radiation and the hypothesis about the black hole disappeared. Parameters of central thickening: 20,000 light years in diameter and 3000 light years in thickness.

The galaxy disc containing young stars of the type I (young blue supergiant), interstellar matter, scattered star clusters and 4 spiral sleeves, has a diameter of 100,000 light years and the thickness of only 3000 light years. The galaxy rotates, the inner part of it takes place in their orbits much faster than external. The sun makes a full turn around the core for 200 million. In the spiral sleeves there is a continuous process of star formation.

The galactic halo is concentral with a disc and central thickening and consists of stars, mainly members of ball clusters and belonging to the population of type II. However, most of the substance in halo is invisible and cannot be enclosed in ordinary stars, it is not gas and not dust. Thus, the halo contains dark invisible substance. Calculations of the speed of rotation of large and small magtellane clouds, which are satellites of the Milky Way, show that the mass concluded in the halo, 10 times the mass, which we observe in the disk and thickening.

The sun is located at a distance of 2/3 from the center of the disk in an orion sleeve. Its localization in the disc plane (galactic equator) allows you to see a disc star from the ground as a narrow strip Milky Way, Covering the entire celestial sphere and inclined at an angle of 63 ° to heavenly equator. The center of the Galaxy lies in Sagittarius, but he is unobserved in the visible light due to dark nebulae from gas and dust, absorbing the light of stars.

Calculation of the radius of the star according to its luminosity and temperature.

L - Luminability (LC \u003d 1)

R - radius (rc \u003d 1)

T - Temperature (TC \u003d 6000)

Ticket number 22.

Star clusters. The physical condition of the interstellar medium.

Star clusters are stars located relatively close to each other and associated with a common movement in space. Apparently, almost all stars are born by groups, and not separately. Therefore, star clusters - the thing is quite common. Astronomers love to study star clusters, because all the stars included in the accumulation were formed about the same time and approximately at the same distance from us. Any noticeable differences in the brilliance between such stars are true differences. It is especially useful to study star clusters in terms of dependence of their properties from the mass - because the age of these stars and their distance from the ground is about the same, so they differ from each other with their mass. There are two types of star clusters: open and ball. In the open cluster, each star is visible separately, they are distributed on some sky more or less evenly. And the ball clusters, on the contrary, are like the sphere, so tightly filled with stars, which in its center individual stars are indistinguishable.

Open clusters contain from 10 to 1000 stars, among them there are much more young than old, and the oldest hardly count more than 100 million years. The fact is that in older clusters, the stars are gradually moving away from each other until they are mixed with the main set of stars. Although a certain extent keeps open accumulations together, they are still quite fragile, and the other object can break them.

The clouds in which stars are formed are concentrated in the disk of our galaxy, and it is there that open star clusters are found.

In contrast to open, ball accumulations are spheres, tightly filled with stars (from 100 thousand to 1 million). The size of a typical ball cluster is from 20 to 400 light years in the diameter.

In tightly stuffed centers of these clusters, the stars are in such proximity to one another that mutual gravity binds them with each other, forming compact double stars. Sometimes there is even a complete merger of stars; With a close convergence, the outdoor stings of the star can collapse, exposing the central kernel on direct review. In the ball clusters, the double stars occur 100 times more often than anywhere else.

Around our galaxy, we know about 200 ball star clusters, which are distributed throughout the halo, concluding galaxies. All these clusters are very old, and they arose more or less at the same time as the galaxy itself. It seems that the accumulations were formed when parts of the cloud from which the galaxy was created were divided into smaller fragments. The ball clusters do not diverge, because the stars are sitting in them very closely, and their powerful mutual powers are associated with a cluster into a dense one.

The substance (gas and dust), located in space between the stars, is called an interstellar medium. Most of it is concentrated in the spiral sleeves of the Milky Way and is 10% of its mass. In some areas, the substance is relatively cold (100 K) and is detected by infrared radiation. Such clouds contain neutral hydrogen, molecular hydrogen and other radicals, the presence of which can be detected using radio telescopes. In areas near high luminosity stars, the gas temperature can reach 1000-10000 K, and hydrogen ionized.

The interstellar medium is very hot (about 1 atom to cm 3). However, in dense clouds, the concentration of the substance can be 1000 times higher than the average. But in a dense cloud, a cubic centimeter accounts for only a few hundred atoms. The reason why we still manage to observe the interstellar substance is that we see it in a large thickness of the space. The particle sizes are 0.1 μm, they contain carbon and silicon, come to the interstellar medium from the atmosphere of cold stars as a result of supernova explosions. The resulting mixture forms new stars. The interstellar medium has a weak magnetic field and permeated by the streams of cosmic rays.

Our solar system is in the area of \u200b\u200bthe galaxy, where the density of the interstellar is unusually low. This area is called local "bubble"; It extends in all directions about 300 light years.

Calculation of the angular sizes of the Sun for an observer located on another planet.

Ticket number 23.

The main types of galaxies and their distinctive features.

Galaxies , stars, dust and gas systems with a complete mass of 1 million to 10 trillion. Sun masses. The true nature of the galaxies was finally explained only in the 1920s. After sharp discussions. Until this time, when observed in a telescope, they looked like diffuse spots of light, resembling nebulae, but only with the help of a 2.5-meter reflector telescope Mount Wilson, first used in the 1920s, managed to get images from deployment. Stars in the nebula of Andromeda and prove that this is a galaxy. The same telescope was applied by Hubble for measuring Cefeide periods in Andromeda nebula. These variable stars have been studied quite well, so that you can accurately determine the distances to them. Andromeda nebula is approx. 700 PDAs, i.e. She lies far beyond our galaxy.

There are several types of galaxies, basic spiral and elliptical. Attempts to classify them with alphabetic and digital circuits, such as Hubble classification, however, some galaxies do not fit into these schemes, in this case they are called in honor of astronomers who first allocated them (for example, the galaxies of Seyfert and Markaryan), or give alphas Designations of classification schemes (for example, N-type and CD type galaxy). Galaxies that do not have a distinct form are classified as incorrect. The origin and evolution of galaxies are still not understood. The best of all studied spiral galaxies. These include objects having a bright core from which spiral sleeves come from gas, dust and stars. Most of the spiral galaxies have 2 sleeves emanating from the opposite sides of the kernel. As a rule, the stars in them are young. These are normal spirals. There are also crossed spirals that have a central jumper from stars connecting the inner ends of two sleeves. Our city also refers to spiral. The masses of almost all spirals are lying in the range from 1 to 300 billion. The mass of the Sun. About three quarters of all galaxies in the Universe are elliptical . They have an elliptical form, deprived of a distinguishable spiral structure. Their form can vary from almost spherical to cigar-like. In size, they are very diverse - from dwarf weight somewhat million solar to gigantic weighing 10 trillion solar. The biggest of the famous - CD type galaxies . They have a big core or perhaps several nuclei, fast moving relative to each other. Often these are pretty strong radio sources. Markaryan's galaxies were highlighted by the Soviet astronomer of the Venionic Markaryan in 1967. They are strong radiation sources in the ultraviolet range. Galaxies N-type Have a look like a star, weakly luminous core. They are also strong radio sources and presumably evolve into quasars. In the photo, the Seyfert galaxies look like normal spirals, but with a very bright core and spectra with wide and bright emission lines indicating the presence in their nuclei of a large number of fast-growing hot gas. This type of galaxies is open to American astronomer Carl Seyfert in 1943. The galaxies observed optically and at the same time being strong radio sources are called radio-beaks. These include Seyfert Galaxies, CD- and N-Type and Some Quasars. The mechanism for generating energy radioigalaxies is not yet understood.

Determination of the visibility of the planet Saturn according to the School Astronomical Calendar.

Ticket number 24.

Basics of modern ideas about the structure and evolution of the Universe.

In the 20th century An understanding of the universe was achieved as a whole. The first important step was made in the 1920s, when scientists came to the conclusion that our galaxy - the Milky Way is one of the millions of galaxies, and the sun is one of the millions of the Milky Way. The subsequent study of galaxies showed that they are removed from the Milky Way, and the further they are, the greater this speed (measured by red displacement in its spectrum). So, we live in expanding universe. The galaxies' running is reflected in the Hubble law, according to which the red shift of the galaxy is in proportion to the distance to it. In addition, in the largest scale, i.e. At the level of super-consumer galaxies, the universe has a cellular structure. Modern cosmology (the doctrine of the evolution of the Universe) is based on two postulates: the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

There are several models of the universe.

In the Einstein-de Sitter model, the extension of the universe continues endlessly long, the universe does not expand in the static model and does not evolve, in the pulsating universe, expansion and compression cycles are repeated. However, the static model is least likely, not only the Hubble Law, but also found in 1965, the background relict radiation (that is, the radiation of the primary expanding chopped four-dimensional sphere).

The basis of some cosmological models is the "hot universe" theory, set out below.

In accordance with the solutions of Friedman Einstein equations 10-13 billion years ago, at the initial moment of time, the radius of the universe was zero. In the zero volume, all the energy of the universe was concentrated, his whole mass. The energy density is infinite, infinite and the density of the substance. This condition is called singular.

In 1946, Georgy Gamov and his colleagues developed the physical theory of the initial stage of expansion of the universe, explaining the presence of chemical elements in the synthesis in very high temperatures and pressure. Therefore, the beginning of the expansion on the theory of Gamov was called the "large explosion." The collaborators of Gamova were R. Alffer and the city of Bethe, so sometimes this theory is called "α, β, γ-theory".

The universe is expanding from a state with endless density. In a singular state, ordinary laws of physics are not applicable. Apparently, all fundamental interactions at such high energies are indistinguishable from each other. And from what radius of the universe makes sense to talk about the applicability of the laws of physics? The answer is from the plank length:

Since the time t p \u003d R p / c \u003d 5 * 10 -44 C (C - speed of light, H is a constant plank). Most likely, it was through T p gravitational interaction separated from the rest. According to theoretical calculations, during the first 10 -36 C, when the temperature of the universe was greater than 10 28 K, the energy in the volume unit remained constant, and the universe expanded at a speed significantly exceeding the speed of light. This fact does not contradict the theory of relativity, as not the substance, but the space itself expanded at such a speed. This stage of evolution is called inflexible . From modern theories of quantum physics it follows that at this time the strong nuclear interaction separated from electromagnetic and weak. The resulting energy and was the cause of the catastrophic expansion of the universe, which for a tiny period of time in 10 - 33 s increased from the size of the atom to the size of the solar system. At the same time, elementary particles and slightly fewer anticascies appeared to us. The substance and radiation were still in thermodynamic equilibrium. This era is called radiation Stage of Evolution. At a temperature of 5 ∙ 10 12 K ended stage reconganization : Almost all protons and neutrons are annihilated, turning into photons; There were only those for whom Anticascular not enough. The initial excess of particles compared to antiparticles is one billion from their number. It is from this "excessive" substance and consists mainly of the substance of the observed universe. A few seconds after a big explosion began stage primary nucleosynthesis when the deuterium and helium kernels were formed, which lasted about three minutes; Then the calm expansion and cooling of the universe began.

Approximately after a million years after the explosion, the balance between the substance and radiation was impaired, atoms began to form out of free protons and electrons, and the radiation began to pass through the substance as through a transparent environment. It was this radiation that was called relict, its temperature was about 3000 K. Currently, a background with a temperature of 2.7 K. Realistic background radiation was opened in 1965. It turned out to be at a high degree isotropic and its existence confirms the model of the hot expanding universe. After primary nucleosynthesis The substance began to evolve independently, due to the variations of the density of the substance formed in accordance with the principle of the uncertainty of Heisenberg during the inflationary stage, protoglakics appeared. Where the density was slightly more average, the foci of attraction, areas with a reduced density were made all more rarellied, since the substance went out of them into more dense areas. It is so almost a homogeneous medium that was divided into individual protoglactics and their clusters, and after hundreds of millions of years, the first stars appeared.

Cosmological models lead to the conclusion that the fate of the Universe depends only on the average density of its fill substance. If it is below some critical density, the expansion of the universe will continue forever. This option is called the "open universe". A similar development scenario is waiting for a flat universe when the density is equal to critical. Through the Gugol Years, the whole substance in the stars will prime, and the galaxies will load in darkness. Only planets, white and brown dwarfs will remain, and the clashes between them will be extremely rare.

However, even in this case, the metagalaxy is not eternal. If the theory of the great association of interactions is true, after 10 40, the components of the former stars protons and neutrons will be sprinkled. After approximately 10,000, gigantic black holes will evaporate. In our world only electrons, neutrinos and photons removed from each other for huge distances will remain. In a sense, it will be the end of time.

If the density of the universe is too large, then our world is closed, and the expansion is sooner or later changed by catastrophic compression. The universe will finish its life in a gravitational collapse in a certain sense it's even worse.

Calculation of the distance to the star according to the famous parallax.

1. The local time.

The time measured on this geographical meridian is called local time of this meridian. For all places on the same meridian of the hour angle of the point of spring equinox (or the sun, or the Middle Sun) at some point, the same. Therefore, on all geographical meridians, local time (star or solar) is the same one and the same moment.

If the difference in the geographic longitude of two places is D l.then in the more eastern place the hour angle of any luminaries will be on D l.more than the hour angle of the same shone in a more western place. Therefore, the difference of any local times on the two meridians in the same physical moment is always equal to the difference in the longness of these meridians, expressed in-hour (in units of time):

those. The local average time of any item on Earth is always equal to worldwide time at this point, plus the longitude of this item, expressed in-hour and considered positive to the east of Greenwich.

In astronomical calendars, the moments of most phenomena are indicated by world time T. 0. Moments of these phenomena local time T t. Especially determined by formula (1.28).

3. Explanatory time. In everyday life, use both local average sunny time and the worldwide time is inconvenient. The first because local time account systems are in principle as much as geographic meridians, i.e. Countless. Therefore, to establish a sequence of events or phenomena marked local time, it is absolutely necessary to know, except the moments, also the difference of the longitude of those meridians, on which these events or phenomena took place.

The sequence of events marked by world time is easy, but a large difference between the worldwide time and local time of meridians remote from Greenwich to considerable distances, creates inconvenience when using worldwide time in everyday life.

In 1884 it was proposed middle-in-time account balance The essence of which is as follows. Time account is carried out only on 24 basic Geographical meridians located apart by longitude exactly 15 ° (or after 1 H), approximately in the middle of each time zone. Time zones The sections of the earth's surface are called, to which it is conditionally divided by lines, which come from its north pole to the southern and alive approximately 7 °, 5 from the main meridians. These lines, or the boundaries of time zones, are accurately followed by geographical meridians only in the open seas and oceans and in non-heated places of sushi. Otherwise, they go through state, administrative and economic or geographical borders, retreating from the corresponding meridian in one way or the other. Time zones are ranked with 0 to 23. Greenwich is adopted for the basic meridian of the zero belt. The main meridian of the first time zone is located from Greenwich exactly 15 ° to the east, the second - by 30 °, the third - by 45 °, etc. up to 23 hours belts, the main meridian of which has the eastern longitude from Greenwich 345 ° (or Western longitude 15 °).

Located time T P. It is called local average solar time, measured on the main meridian of this time zone. There is a time account on it throughout the entire territory under this time zone.

Explanatory time of this belt p associated with the worldwide time of the obvious ratio

T n \u003d t 0 + N. H. .

(1.29)

It is also quite obvious that the difference in the waist times of two items is an integer number of hours, equal difference of the numbers of their time zones.

4. Summer time. In order to more rational distribution of electricity, going to the coverage of enterprises and residential premises, and the most complete use of daylight in the summer months of the year in many countries (including in our republic) clock arrows of watches spent at the best time, forward to 1 Hour or half an hour. The so-called is introduced summer time. In the fall, the clock again put at the best time.

Summer Time Communication T L. any item with his belt time T P.and with worldwide time T. 0 is given by the following ratios:

(1.30)

From the sea of \u200b\u200binformation in which we are thin, except for self-depriveing \u200b\u200bthere is another way out. Experts with a fairly wide range can create updated abstracts or summaries, which briefly summarize the main facts from a particular area. We present the attempt by Sergey Popov to make such a set of major information on astrophysics.

S. Popov. Photo I. Yarova

Contrary to popular belief, school teaching astronomy was not at height and in the USSR. Officially, the subject stood in the program, but in reality, astronomy was not taught in all schools. Often, even if the lessons were conducted, the teachers used them for additional classes in their profile subjects (mainly physics). And absolutely in isolated cases, teaching was high quality enough to have time to form an adequate picture of the world from schoolchildren. In addition, astrophysics is one of the most rapidly developing sciences over the past decades, i.e. Knowledge of astrophysics that adults received at school 30-40 years ago, are essentially outdated. We add that now astronomy in schools almost at all. As a result, in the mass of its people, they have a rather vague idea of \u200b\u200bhow the world is arranged on a scale, more than the orbits of the planets of the solar system.

Spiral Galaxy NGC 4414

Capacity of galaxies in constellation Veronica's hair

Planet at the star Fomalgaut

In such a situation, it seems to me it would be reasonable to make a "very short course of astronomy". That is, allocate key facts forming the foundations of the modern astronomical picture of the world. Of course, different specialists can choose slightly differing sets of basic concepts and phenomena. But it is good if there are some good versions. It is important that everything can be set out for one lecture or fit into one small article. And then those who are interested will be able to expand and deepen knowledge.

I set myself the task of making the most important concepts and facts on astrophysics, which would fit on one standard A4 page (approximately 3000 characters with spaces). At the same time, of course, it is assumed that a person knows that the Earth revolves around the Sun, understands why eclipses occur and the change of seasons. That is, very "children's" facts are not included.

NGC 3603 Star Education Area

Planetary Nebula NGC 6543

The rest of the supernova Cassiopeia A

Practice has shown that everything that has fallen into the list can be set forth about the hour lecture (or for a couple of lessons at school, taking into account answers to questions). Of course, in an hour and a half you can not form a steady picture of the device of the world. However, the first step must be done, and here should help such an "etude with large strokes", in which all the main points that reveal the basic properties of the structure of the Universe are captured.

All images are obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope and taken from the sites http://heritage.stsci.edu and http://hubble.nasa.gov

1. The sun is a row star (one of about 200-400 billion) on the outskirts of our galaxy - systems from stars and their residues, interstellar gas, dust and dark substances. Distances between stars in the galaxy usually constitute several light years.

2. The solar system extends for the orbit of pluto and ends where the gravitational effect of the sun is compared with the influence of close stars.

3. Stars continue to form in our days from interstellar gas and dust. During his life and at its end of the star, a part of their substance enriched with synthesized elements into interstellar space is reset. So nowadays the chemical composition of the universe changes.

4. The sun evolves. His age is less than 5 billion years. After about 5 billion years, hydrogen will end in its core. The sun will turn into a red giant, and then in white dwarf. Massive stars at the end of life explode, leaving a neutron star or a black hole.

5. Our galaxy is one of many similar systems. In the visible part of the universe about 100 billion large galaxies. They are surrounded by small satellites. The size of the galaxy is about 100,000 light years. The nearest major galaxy is about 2.5 million light years.

6. Planets exist not only around the Sun, but also around other stars, they are called exoplans. Planetary systems are not similar to each other. Now we know more than 1000 exoplanets. Apparently, many stars have planets, but only a small part can be suitable for life.

7. The world, as we know it, has a finite age - just less than 14 billion years. Initially, the matter was in very dense and hot. Particles of conventional substance (protons, neutrons, electrons) did not exist. The universe is expanding, evolving. During the expansion of a dense hot state, the universe cooled and became less dense, conventional particles appeared. Then the stars, galaxies arose.

8. Due to the limb of the speed of light and the final age, the observed universe is available to us for observations only the ultimate area of \u200b\u200bspace, but at this border the physical world does not end. At long distances, due to the limb of the speed of light, we see objects as they were in the distant past.

9. Most chemical elements with which we face in life (and of which are) have arisen in the stars during their lives as a result of thermonuclear reactions, or in the last stages of the life of massive stars - in supernova explosions. Prior to the formation of stars, the usual substance basically existed in the form of hydrogen (the most common element) and helium.

10. The usual substance contributes to the full density of the universe only about a few percent. About a quarter of the density of the Universe is associated with a dark substance. It consists of particles, weakly interacting with each other and with a conventional substance. We still observe only the gravitational effect of the dark substance. About 70 percent of the density of the Universe is associated with dark energy. Because of it, the expansion of the Universe goes faster. The nature of the dark energy is unclear.