Koristuvalnytsky poshuk

Vod structure

Ph.D. O.V. Mosin

The water molecule is a small dipole, which avenges positive and negative charges at the poles. Shards of mass and the charge of the nucleus sour more than the lower nuclei of water, then the electronic gloom is drawn into the bik of the sour nucleus. At the same time, the cores become bare. In this rank, electronic haze may be a non-uniform thickening. In the nuclei of the water, there is a deficiency of electronic power, but in the protolithic side of the molecule, the nucleus is sour, there is an excess of electronic power. This very structure determines the polarity of the water molecule. As the epicenters of positive and negative charges are connected by straight lines, we form a volumetric geometric figure - a regular tetrahedron.

Budova molecules of water (baby right-handed)

The signs of the presence of water bonds are the water molecule of the skin, which establishes the water bonds from the chotirma with suicidal molecules, making the openwork frame of the ice molecule. However, in a rare country, water is an unordered country; tsі water links - spontaneous, short-lived, quickly torn and settled again. Everything should be brought to heterogeneity in the structure of the water.

Water bonds between water molecules (Figure below)

Those that the water is not homogeneous behind the warehouse were installed long ago. Since ancient times, it is clear that the ice is floating on the surface of the water, so the thickness of the crystalline ice is less, the lower thickness of the native land.

Maizhe at the reshti of speeches had a crystal clearer than a rare phase. Until then, after melting at elevated temperatures, the water gap continues to increase and reaches a maximum at 4C. Less visible anomaly of water susceptibility: when the melting point is heated up to 40 °C, it changes, and then increases. The heat capacity of the water is also non-monotonically deposited at the temperature.

In addition, at temperatures below 30 °C, with an increase in pressure from atmospheric pressure to 0.2 GPa, the viscosity of water changes, and the self-diffusion coefficient is a parameter that indicates the speed of movement of water molecules in a single growth.

For other lands, fallowness is reversed, and there is no place else, so that such an important parameter was adjusted non-monotonically, that is. on the back of the head, but after passing the critical temperature, the temperature changed a little. Viniclo is allowed, because in fact water is not a single motherland, but the sum of two components, as if they are controlled by authority, for example, by strength and viscosity, and also by structure. Such ideas began to vindicate in the late 19th century, when a lot of data about the anomalies of the water accumulated.

The first idea was that water has two components, according to Whiting in 1884. This is the authorship of the quote by E.F. Fritsman in the monograph "The nature of the water. The water is important", seen in 1935. In 1891, V. Rengten's roci was informed about two camps of the driver, which are arguing for the schіlnіst. After her, a lot of robots appeared, they looked at the water like a sum of associates of a diverse warehouse (hydraulics).

If 20 years determined the structure of the ice, it appeared that the water molecules in the crystalline state establish a trivi- merous uninterrupted network, while in the skin molecule there are only a few of the closest sucides located at the vertices of a regular tetrahedron. In 1933, J. Bernal and P. Fowler admitted that the net is similar in natural water. The shards of water are more like ice, the stench is respected, that the molecules in it are not so, like those of ice, that it is like atoms of silicon in the mineral tridymite, and so, like atoms of silicon in a larger modification of quartz silica. The increase in water thickening when heated from 0 to 4C was explained by the presence of a tridymite component at a low temperature. In this way, Bernal Fowler's model retained the element of two-structure, but more importantly, the idea of ​​an uninterrupted tetrahedral network. Then there was the famous aphorism of I. Langmuir: "The ocean is one great molecule." The supra-world concretization of the model did not add to the application of the unified grid theory.

Only in 1951, J. Popl, having created a model of a non-interrupted network, was not as specific as the model of Bernal Fowler. Popl representing water as a vipadkovu tetrahedral network, links between molecules in a kind of curvature and may differ in dozhina. Popla's model explains the improvement of the melting time of the bending of the bonds. If the 60-70-year-olds appeared the first designation of the ice structures II and IX, they realized that the distortion of the links can lead to a strengthening of the structure. Popla's model could not explain the non-monotonicity of the staleness of the powers of the waters in the temperature and vice as well as the two-state model. To this idea, the two futures have already shared a lot of ideas.

But in the other half of the 20th century it was not possible to fantasize so much about the warehouse and the water supply, as if they were working on the cob of the century. Already it was seen, like the power of the leader and the crystallogists, and they knew a lot about the water bells. Crim of continuum models (Pople's model), vinicles of two groups of mixed models: cluster and clathrate. In the first group, water was supplied to the clusters of molecules, tied with watery bonds, as if they were floating in a sea of ​​molecules, as if they did not take part in such bonds. Models of the other group looked at the water as an uninterrupted grid (sound in this context as a frame) of water sounds, to avenge the empty ones; in which the molecules are located, in which they bind with the molecules of the framework. It does not matter how powerful and concentrated the concentration of two microphases of cluster models, but the power of the framework and the steps of filling the empty clathrate models, to explain all the powers of the water, including the famous anomalies.

Among the cluster models, the model of G. Nemet and H. Sheragi emerged most beautifully.: proponed by them pictures that depict clusters of bound molecules, that swim in a sea of ​​unbound molecules, have gone to many monographs

The first model of the clathrate type was introduced in 1946 by O.Ya. L. Pauling 1959 created another option, assuming that the basis of the structure can be a network of links, powerful to such crystallologs.

With the stretch of the other half of the 60s and the beginning of the 70s, one can look at the convergence of all these views. There were variants of cluster models, in both microphases the molecules are connected by water links. The pribіchniki of clathrate models began to allow the establishment of water links between hollow and framework molecules. So, in fact, the authors of the models look at the water as an uninterrupted network of water links. I go about those who are not homogeneous in the network (for example, for the schiling). The discovery of water as a water-covered cluster that floats in the sea of ​​the amplifying bonds of water molecules, was put on the cob of the eighteenth rocks, if G. Stanley zastosuvav to the model lead the theory of percolation, which describes the phase transitions of water.

In 1999 Vіdomy rosіyskiy doslіdnik Vodi S.V. Zenin, having received a doctoral dissertation at the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, dedicated to cluster theory, has become the first step in the examination of the science directly, the complexity of which is possible, that the stench of three sciences: physics, biology. Їm on the basis of data taken from trio by physical and chemical methods: refractometry (S.V. Zenin, B.V. Tyaglov, 1994), high-performance native chromatography (S.V. Zenin z spivavt., 1998) and proton magnetic resonance (C .V.Zenin, 1993) suggested that a geometric model of the main stable structural solution of water molecules (structured water) was developed, and then (S.V. Zenin, 2004) an image was taken with the aid of a contrast-phase microscope of these structures.

At the same time, science has brought that the peculiarities of physical powers of water and numerical short-lived water links between susceptible atoms of water and acid in water molecules create favorable possibilities for the establishment of special structures-associates (clusters),

Structural unity of such a leader is a cluster that is formed from clathrates, the nature of which is mindful of distant Coulomb forces. The structure of the clusters encoded information about the interactions between the places with these water molecules. In water clusters of rahunok, interchangeably between covalent and water bonds between oxygen atoms and water atoms, proton (H+) migration can occur according to the relay mechanism, which leads to proton delacalization between clusters.

Water, which is made up of rich clusters of different types, creates an ієrarchical expanse of a rare-crystal structure, as it can capture and preserve the greatness of information.

On the little one (V.L. Voykov), as a butt, the schemes of some of the simplest cluster structures were pointed.

Possible structures of water clusters

The carriers of information can be physical fields of different nature. Thus, the possibility of a remote informational interplay of a rare-crystal structure of water with objects of a different nature was established for the help of electromagnetic, acoustic and other fields. The object that is pouring in can be a person.

Water is a source of super-weak and weak luminous electromagnetic vibration. The least chaotic electro-magnetic vibration creates structured water. In this case, the induction of a double electromagnetic field can occur, which changes the structural and informational characteristics of biological objects.

For the rest of the years, important data were taken away from the powers of the cold water. Whirl the water at a low temperature even more coldly, the shards will go into more cold weather, lower coolness. The crystallization of the water, as a rule, is based on some inhomogeneities, either on the walls of the judge, or on the floating particles of solid houses. That is why it is not easy to know the temperature, when it is overcooled, the water mimicantly crystallized hard. Let's take a look at the distance, and at the same time the temperature of the so-called homogeneous nucleation, if the illumination of the crystals of ice goes up to 0.3 GPa at once in the whole volume, it is possible for the pressure to fall as much as 0.3 GPa, then the spheres are the basis of ice II.

In the atmospheric pressure to the boundary, which separates ices I and II, the temperature drops from 231 to 180 K, and then slightly rises to 190K. Below the critical temperature, water is rarely possible in principle.

The structure of the ice (baby right-handed)

However, one riddle is connected with temperature. In the middle of the 1700s, a new modification of amorphous ice-ice of high thickness was introduced, and it helped to revive the appearance of water like a sum of two stations. Like prototypes, it was not crystalline structures that were seen, but the structures of amorphous ices of various thicknesses. The most striking concept was formulated by E.G. Poniatovsky and V.V. Sinitsin, who wrote in 1999: "Water is taken as a regular distribution of two components, local changes in them are similar to the short-range order of modifications and morphic ice." Moreover, by studying the short-range order in supercooling water at high pressure by neutron diffraction methods, we were able to know the components that correspond to these structures.

The last polymorphism of amorphous ices was also allowed for the separation of water into two components, which is not to be confused, at a temperature below the hypothetical low-temperature critical point. It’s a pity, according to the assessment of the previous ones, that the temperature at a pressure of 0.017 GPa is 230K lower than the temperature of nucleation, so no one has yet come far. So the revival of the model of two stations provided information about the heterogeneity of the network of water sounds near the river water. Exploring this heterogeneity is only possible with the help of computer modeling.

Speaking about the crystal structure of water, it should be noted that there are 14 modifications of ice, most of them do not grow in nature, in which water molecules retain their individuality, and are connected by water links. From the other side, there are no other options for networks of water links in clathrate hydrates. The energy of these grids (high pressure ices and clathrate hydrates) is not rich for the energy of cubic and hexagonal ices. Therefore, fragments of such structures can appear in rare water. It is possible to construct anonymous different non-periodic fragments, the molecules in which can be found along the nearest neighbors, spreading approximately along the vertices of the tetrahedron, but if they are, the structure does not match the structures of other modifications of ice. As numerical studies have shown, the energies of the intermolecular interactions in such fragments will be close one to one, and it is impossible to say that the structure is guilty of being overwhelmed in rare water.

Structural follow-up of water can be done using different methods; proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and other. For example, the diffraction of X-ray changes and neutron removals were richly developed. Prote reports about the structure and experiments cannot be given. Heterogeneities, which are different for the space, can be used for the distribution of X-ray exchanges and neutrons under small cuts, but the same inhomogeneities can be great, like hundreds of water molecules. It was possible for them to sing, and continue to spread the light. However, water is an all-clear homeland. The only result of diffraction experiments is the function of the radial distribution of the subdivision, so that between the atoms sour, water and sour-water. It can be seen from them that there is no distant order of dispersal of water molecules. The functions of the water fade out more richly, the lower is the greater number of other homelands. For example, I rose between the atoms of acidity at a temperature close to room temperature, but only three maxima, by 2.8, 4.5 and 6.7. The first maximum rises to the nearest succes, and that second value is approximately the same as the old watery link. Another maximum is close to the middle edge of the tetrahedron: it is possible that the water molecules in hexagonal ice are spread over the vertices of the tetrahedron, described near the central molecule. And the third maximum, the expressions are even weaker, rising to the third and more distant succes with a water net. Tsei maximum and himself are not more than yaskravy, but about further write-offs, one should not speak. Buli try to take a look at these rozpodіlіv detailed information. So in 1969, the rotations of I.S. Tse allows you to work on data on the long-range sharpening of water molecules.

The second method for investigating the structure is neutron diffraction on water crystals, and it works the same way as X-ray diffraction. However, due to those that do not differ much in different atoms, the method of isomorphic substitution becomes unacceptable. It really sounds like a crystal, in which the molecular structure has already been approximately established by other methods. Then, for which crystal, the intensity of neutron diffraction is controlled. For these results, carry out the transformation of Fur'є, every hour to stop the neutron intensity and phase, counting the adjustment of non-water atoms, tobto. the atoms are sour, the place of those in the model of the structure in the house. Then, in such a way, the Fourier map of the atom and water and deuterium are presented with larger numbers, lower maps of the electronic gap, because The contribution of these atoms to neutron scattering is already great. For example, one can assign the position of atoms to water (negative abundance) and deuterium (positive abundance) for the map of strength.

Possibility of a different method, which is based on the fact that it is crystal, that having settled by the water, in front of the vimirs they are seen by the important water. And here, neutron diffraction, as it allows you to restore, destroy atoms of water, and it reveals that it can be exchanged for deuterium, which is especially important for isotope (H-D)-exchange. Such information helps to confirm the correctness of the installed structure.

Other methods allow to study the dynamics of water molecules. The whole experiment of quasi-spring scattering of neutrons, superficial IR-spectroscopy and diffusion of secondary NMR and deuterium targeting. The method of NMR spectroscopy is based on the fact that the nucleus of an atom has a magnetic moment-spin, which interacts with magnetic fields, constant and changing. According to the NMR spectrum, it is possible to make vysnovkas, in which the sharpened atoms and nuclei are changed, otrimuyuchi, in this way, information about the structure of the molecule.

As a result of experiments on quasi-spring neutron diffusion in crystals, the most important parameter-coefficient of self-diffusion at different pressures and temperatures was found to be the most important. In order to judge the coefficient of self-diffusion for the quasi-spring scattering of neutrons, it is necessary to make an assumption about the nature of the molecular momentum. Like the stench collapses apparently to the model of Y.I. ) molecules become 3.2 picoseconds. New methods of femtosecond laser spectroscopy made it possible to estimate the hour of life of a broken water link: a proton needs 200 fs in order to know a partner. However, all are average values. It is possible to see the details of the nature of the water molecules only with the help of computer simulation, which is sometimes called a numerical experiment.

This is how the structure looks like after the legacy of computer modeling (after the tribute of Doctor of Chemistry G. G. Malenkov). The fringeless structure can be divided into two types of areas (shown by dark and light bags), so that you can differ for your own life, for example, for the obyag of Voronoi’s bagatohedron (a), the degree of tetrahedrality of the closest sharpening (b), the values ​​of potential energy (c), and also for the presence of several watery bonds in the skin molecule (d). Tue, in the region, literally in a matter of minutes, in a few picoseconds, change your roztashuvannya.

Modeling is done like this. The ice structure is taken and heated until melted. Then, after the next hour, when the water forgets about the crystal trip, the microphotographs are taken.

Three parameters are selected for the analysis of the water structure:
- steps of the local sharpening of the molecule from the vertices of a regular tetrahedron;
- Potential energy of molecules;
- Obsyag of the so-called Voronoi bagatohedron.

In order to induce the bagatohedron, take an edge from the given molecule to the nearest one, extend it and draw a plane perpendicular to the edge through this point. Come out as soon as one molecule falls. Obsyag polyhedra integrity, tetrahedrality, steps of the creation of water bonds, energy, steps of the stability of the configuration of molecules. Molecules with similar values ​​of skin parameters and parameters should be grouped together around a cluster. Areas with both low and high energy may have different energy values, but they can also have the same values. Experiments have shown that areas with different budovoe clusters wilt spontaneously and spontaneously fall apart. The whole structure of the water is alive and constantly changing, moreover, the hour, for which changes are needed, is even short. The followers followed the movements of the molecules and chimed, that the stench was caused by irregular oscillations with a frequency of about 0.5 ps and an amplitude of 1 angstrom. There were also a lot of common haircuts in angstrom, like trying picoseconds. For 30 ps, ​​a molecule can shift by 8-10 angstroms. The hour of life of a local school is also small. Regions composed of molecules with similar values ​​to the Voronoi bagatohedron can disintegrate in 0.5 ps, and can live in a few picoseconds. And the axis rose up the hours of life of the watery ties, the great one. Ale this hour is selected at 40 ps, ​​and the average value of the sprat is ps.

At the end of the next seat, scho the theory of clustering and water may have a lot of underwater stone. For example, Zenin admits that the main structural element is a water-cluster of 57 molecules, solutions to the evils of chotirioh dodecahedrons. The stench can make the twin faces, like the centers make the regular tetrahedron. Those that water molecules can be placed on the vertices of a pentagonal dodecahedron have been known for a long time; such a dodecahedron is the basis of gas hydrates. Therefore, there is nothing wonderful about the assumptions about the foundation of such structures in water, even though it has already been said that any particular structure cannot be superior to that of a long time. It is marvelous that this element is transferred to the main one and that up to the new one there are exactly 57 molecules. Three bags, for example, you can choose the same structures, which are folded into dodecahedrons, which adjoin one to one, and replace 200 molecules. Zenin solidifies that trivimir polymerization leads to 57 molecules. Bigger associates, in my opinion, are not to blame. However, it seemed to be so, from the water vapor they could not take crystals of hexagonal ice in the cover, as if to avenge the majesty of the molecules tied together with water ligaments. I wondered why the Zenin cluster was growing on 57 molecules. In order to hide the protirіch, Zenin and packing clusters at folding light-rhombohedrons, there may be thousands of molecules, moreover, the outer clusters do not satisfy each other with one water link. Why? How do the molecules on the surface wind down quietly, what's in the middle? According to Zenin's thought, the vizierunok of hydroxyl groups lie on the surface of rhombohedrons and secure the memory of the water. Also, water molecules in these great complexes are hard fixed, and the complexes themselves are solid bodies. Such water is not tektime, and the melting temperature, as it is tied to the molecular mass, is to blame even higher.

How does the leader explain Zenin's model? Oskolki in the basis of the model to lie tetrahedral spores, it is possible in other worlds to use data on the diffraction of X-ray exchanges and neutrons. However, it is unlikely that the model can explain the change in width during melting - the packing of dodecahedrons is smaller, lower lid. Moreover, a model with dynamic power-fluidity, large values ​​of the self-diffusion coefficient, small hours of correlation and dielectric relaxation, which are reduced by picoseconds, is more important.

Ph.D. O.V. Mosin

List of literature:
G.G. Malenkov. Successes in physical chemistry, 2001
S.V.Zenin, B.M. Polanuer, B.V. Tyagliv. Experimental confirmation of the presence of water fractions. G. Homeopathic medicine and acupuncture. 1997. No. 2.S.42-46.
S.V. Zenin, B.V. Tyagliv. Hydrophobic model of the structure of associates of water molecules. Zh.Phys.chemistry.1994.V.68.No.4.S.636-641.
S.V. Zenin Dosledzhennya structures leading to proton magnetic resonance. Dokl.RAN.1993.T.332.No.3.S.328-329.
S.V.Zenin, B.V.Tyaglov. The nature of hydrophobic interaction. Vyniknennya orientatsionnyh watering in water roses. Zh.Phys.chemistry.1994.T.68.No.3.S.500-503.
S.V. Zenin, B.V. Tyaglov, G.B.Sergeev, Z.A. Shabarova. Study of intramolecular interactions in nucleotide amides by NMR. Materials of the 2nd All-Union Conf. By dynamic Stereochemistry. Odessa.1975.p.53.
S.V. Zenin. Structuring the camp of the leader is the basis for managing the behavior and safety of living systems. Dissertation. Doctor of biological sciences. Sovereign Science Center "Institute of Medical and Biological Problems" (DSC "IMBP"). Protected 1999. 05. 27. UDC 577.32: 57.089.001.66.207 p.
V.I. Slesarev. Zvіt about vikonanny NDR

Today we are talking about the power of snow and ice. Varto clarify that the Krieg are not only established by the leaders. The cream of water ice is ammonia and methane. Recently, dry ice has been blamed. The dominance of yoga is unique, they can be looked at by the trochs of the year. Vіn utvoryuєєєє pіd hour zamorozhuvannya carbonic acid. I call my name dry ice, taking off the veins of the one who, when tanning veins, does not fill the kaluzh. Carbon dioxide, which is found in this warehouse, is immediately vaporized in a frozen state.

Appointment ice

Let's face it, let's take a closer look at the leader, which is obtained from the water. The middle of the new correct crystal grati. Lіd - tse extensions of a natural mineral, which is taken off at the hour of freezing water. One molecule of cієї rіdini binds with the nearest. Vcheni remembered that such an interior of the bud is attached to various expensive stones and to inspire minerals. For example, such Budova maє diamond, tourmaline, quartz, corundum, beryl and others. Molecules settle down on a crystal lattice. Tsі vlastnostі vodi that ice to speak about those, that the thickness of such ice will be less for the thickness of the water, the winds like wines have settled. Therefore, the kriga floats on the surface of the water and does not sink into it.

Millions of square kilometers of ice

Do you know how much ice is on our planet? With the rest of the research, there are approximately 30 million square kilometers of frozen water on planet Earth. As you have already guessed, the most important natural mineral is found on the polar caps. In some places, the community of krizhany is 4 km long.

How to take the lead

It's not easy for me to cry out to the cry. This process is not a great practice, as it does not require special skills. For whom the water temperature is low. This is the only postiyna of the mind to the process of appeasement of ice. Water freezes only if your thermometer shows a temperature below 0 degrees Celsius. The water begins the process of crystallization at low temperatures. Molecules її buduyutsya on tsіkavu ordered structure. This process is called the adoption of the crystal gates. Vіn however and in the ocean, and in the Kalyuzhі, and navіt near the freezer.

After the freezing process

Conducting a lecture on the topic of freezing water, they made a visnovka, which crystal grati are hanging at the top of the water. On the surface, microscopic cristals begin to settle down. Trochs freeze between themselves with the stench. Zavdyaki tvoryuetsya natonsha plіvka on the surface of the water. The great water basins freeze richly, more povne with indestructible water. Tse pov'yazano z tim, scho wind hitaє i kolivaє the surface of the lake, the rate of abo river.

Kryzhany mlintsi

Vcheni spent one more watch. As if at low temperatures there is a trifling, then the thinnest swimming pools are picked up in a mold with a diameter of about 30 cm. Farther, the stench freezes into one ball, the thickness of which is not less than 10 cm. Thus, tovst and mіtsny kryzhany pokriv are established. Yogo mіtsnіst lie in vіd vidіv: the most transparent ice will be in the kіlka razіv mіtsnіshy for the white ice. Ecologists remembered that the 5-centimeter ice showed the vag of a grown-up person. A ball of 10 cm in the building visibly a passenger car, but a trace of memory that it’s not safe to go out on the ice in autumn and spring.

The power of snow and ice

Physicists and chemists have spent a trivial hour waving the power of ice and water. Nayv_domisha, and also important is the power of ice for people - the cost of building is easy to sink already beyond zero temperature. Ale for science is important and other physical powers of ice:

• if there is transparency, then it is good for you to pass the sleepy light;
• bezbarvnist - there is no color, but yoga can be easily prepared with additional color additives;
• hardness - krizhanі masi miraculously take shape without any ovnіsh shells;
• plinnist - tse private power to ice, the power of the mineral is less in deyaky falls;
• krikhkіst - a piece of ice can be easily chopped without applying great zusil;
• cleavage - ice with ease razkolyuetsya in quiet places, de vin zrіs along the crystallographic line.

Lead: the power of virtue and purity

Behind its warehouse near the ice there is a high degree of purity, the shards of crystalline grain do not deprive the free space of various third-party molecules. When the water freezes, there are different houses built, as if they were opened. Thus, it is possible to take away the purified water in the household minds.

Ale deyakі speechovini zdatnі zagalmovuvat process freezing water. For example, the strength of the sea water. The ice by the sea is less likely to settle down even at low temperatures. It's wonderful, but the process of freezing leads the building to clean up the self-cleaning in the small houses with a stretch of millions of millions of years of sleep.

Secrets of dry ice

The peculiarity of this ice is that it has coal in its warehouse. Such ice is established only for temperatures of -78 degrees, but only for temperatures of -50 degrees. Dry ice, the power of which is allowed to skip the stage of rіdin, when heated, steam is established at once. Dry ice, like brother and sister - watery, does not smell.

Do you know where dry ice gets stuck? Zavdyaks of this power to the authorities of this mineral vicory are used during the transportation of food products and medicines to far away countries. And the granules of the ice of the building should be extinguished with gasoline. Yet, if dry ice is tan, it makes a thick fog, then you can stop it on significant maidanchiks to create special effects. You can take dry ice with you on your way to the forest. Even if you are in a tane, then watch the mosquitoes, various shkidniks and rodents.

If there is power in the snow, then we can watch the wondrous beauty of the skin winter. Age skin snizhinka maє the shape of a hexagon - nezmenno. Ale, cream of a six-cut shape, cuts can look different. On the molding of the skin, moisture is added again, atmospheric pressure and other natural chinniki.

Powerful water, snow, ice marvelous. It is important to know a sprat of authorities. For example, there is a place to fill up the form and judge, pour it into the yak її. When frozen, the water expands, and also can remember. It’s good to remember the extra energy, and when it’s frozen, it “throws off” information, as if it’s taken in.

We looked at the natural mineral - ice: the power of that yogic quality. Carry on with science, it’s even more important that it’s badass!

Positive charge of a water molecule bound to atoms

water. Negative charges - cevalence electrons

sour. You can mix and match in water molecules

depict a simple tetrahedron at the sight.

How is a molecule stimulated to ice?

There are no suitable molecules for ice. Molecules lead the zavdyaki of your miraculous life into the ice bag one by one so that the skin is bound with them and honed by other molecules. It is not necessary to bring to the vindication an even more fluffy structure of ice, de deprivation of even a rich free obligation. More correctly, the crystal ice of Budov is seen in the marvelous thinness of the snowflakes and in the beauty of the frosty vizierunkiv on frozen bugs.

B n uzu - Schematically, the distribution of atomic nuclei, water and sourness in water molecules, which made the crystal lattice of ice. Vgorі- water molecules, which made crying of the crystal from the saving scale of electronic shells. Give respect to the fluff to the structure of the ice.

How are water molecules prompted by water?

Unfortunately, all the more important food was far from sufficient. Budova's molecules in rare water are even more foldable. If the ice melts, yogo sitchasta

the structure is often taken from the water, which is established. Molecules in tall water are made up of many simple molecules - aggregates, which retain the power of ice. When the temperature rises, some of them fall apart, and they grow smaller.

It is mutually heavy to the extent that the average value of the folding water molecule in rare water significantly outweighs the size of one water molecule. Such supra-divine molecular budova zoomovluє її supra-divine physical and chemical power,

For what temperature is water liable to boil?

Tse pitanya, zvichano, wondrous. Aje water boils over a hundred degrees. Tse know leather. More than that, everyone knows that the very temperature of water boiling at a pressure of one atmosphere is taken as the reference point of the temperature scale, mentally designated as 100°C.

Prote pitanya put іnakshe: what temperature is the water due to boil? Even the temperature of the boiling of various speeches is unviable. The stench lies in the position of the elements, which enters the warehouse of their molecules, in the periodic system of Mendeliev.

The lower atomic number of the element, the lower the atomic number, the lower the boiling point of the lower half. The water behind the chemical warehouse can be called acid hydride. H 2 Ti, H 2 Se and H 2 S are chemical analogs of water. If you keep track of the temperatures of both boiling and boiling, as the boiling temperatures of hydrides in other groups of the periodic system change, you can accurately determine the boiling temperature of any hydride, just like the other one. Mendeleev himself had such a way of transferring the power of chemical forces to other critical elements.

If you indicate the boiling point of the water hydride behind the yoga station in the periodic table, then it will appear that the water is due to boil at 80 ° below zero. In this case, the water boils about a hundred and eighty degrees higher, lower is due to boiling. The boiling point of water - the simplest and most powerful - is supernatural and marvelous.

Now try to reveal that the water has infused the building with the quickness of assimilation of collapsible, associated molecules. However, maybe, it would be small to boil at that temperature, so that it should lie down to the periodic law. What would happen to our Earth? The oceans boil raptovo. On the Earth you will not be deprived of any drops of water, and in the sky you will not be able to see any more of the presence of a haze... And even in the atmosphere of the earth's cool, the temperature never drops below minus 80° - minus 90°C.

At what temperature does water freeze?

Chi is not true, food is not less wonderful, lower in front? Well, who doesn't know that water freezes at zero degrees? This is the reference point of the thermometer. Tse zvichaynіsіnka vlastіvіst vіdі. And in the same way it can be fed, for which temperature the water is liable to freeze in a certain way to its chemical nature. It appears that the acid hydride is moving out of the yogic camp at the periodic table mav bi hardness at a hundred degrees below zero.

Of the 14 known forms of solid water in nature today, only one is known - ice. Others settle in extreme minds and are inaccessible for posture guarding by special laboratories. Naytsіkavіsha power ice - tse marvelous raznomanіttya zovnіshnіh manifestations. With the same and the same crystalline structure, the wines can look different in a different way, swelling with the forms of transparent hailstones and burulok, plastics in fluffy snow, a thin, shiny pick of firn on a snow field or giant ice floes.

Near the small Japanese town of Kaga, planted on the western birch of Honshu, there is an incredible museum. Snow and ice. Having fallen asleep, Yogo Ukihiro Nakaya, the first person, has learned how to feel small pieces of snowflakes in the laboratory, just as beautiful as they fall from the sky. At this museum, looking out from the sides, you will recognize the correct six-pieces, but the very same - hexagonal - symmetry of the power of the crystals of the great ice (before speech, the Greek word kristallos, vlasne, and means "ice"). It shows a lot of unique powers and sneezing snizhinki, with all the inconsistencies of their diversity, growth in the form of stars from six, more - three or twelve exchanges, and if not - z chotirma or five.

Molecules in openwork

The solution to the structure of solid water in everyday molecules. H2O can be easily seen in the appearance of a tetrahedron (pyramids with a tricot base). At the center there is kisen, at two peaks - water, more precisely - a proton, electrons and some backs in a covalent bond with kisne. Two vertices, which are left out, occupy a pair of valence electrons, as if they do not take part in the established intramolecular bonds, through which they are called insubstantial.

In the interplay of a proton, one molecule with a pair of non-subsidiary electrons, the other molecule leads to the formation of water bonds, a smaller strong, lower intramolecular bond, but it can still be able to reduce the charge of the su- dnі molecules. The skin molecule can simultaneously create some watery bonds with other molecules under the main layers, which do not allow to form a gap structure when frozen. This invisible frame of water links contains molecules in a seemingly openwork mesh with empty channels. Wart the ice is heated, as if it were crumbling: the molecules of water begin to fall into the empty nets, leading to the narrow structure of the heartland, - the axis of which water is important for the ice.

Lid, which settles under atmospheric pressure and melts at 0 ° C, is the most common, but speech has not yet fully understood. A lot of things in yoga structures and powers look extraordinary. At the knots of the crystal lattice, the atoms of the ice are vibudated in order, establishing the correct six-pieces, and from the atoms the water is occupied by different positions of the air of the sounds. Such a behavior of atoms is not typical - as a rule, in solid speech, everything follows the same law: either all atoms are arranged in order, or they are crystal, or else they are amorphous, and even amorphous speech.

It’s important to melt the lead, even though it sounded wonderfully. Yakby did not have water bonds, which would splinter water molecules, melting at –90°C. With this, freezing, the water does not change in the obsyaz, as if it were to be filled with more water, but instead it is bigger for the rahunok of the openwork structure of the ice.

Before the "sofas" ice is brought to the generation of electromagnetic vibration by crystals that grow. It has long been seen that the greater number of small houses by the water are not transferred to the ice, if the vines begin to grow, it is easier to freeze. That is why the clearness is pure on the most kalyuzhi spitting ice. Houses are accumulated on the border of a hard and rare middle, at the sight of two balls of electric charges of a different sign, like they call out a significant difference in potentials. Charging the ball of the house moves at once from the lower boundary of the young ice and vibrates the electromagnetic wind. The beginnings of the process of crystallization can be seen in detail. So, the crystal, which, when growing at a dozhin, looks like a needle, vibrates otherwise, is covered with beech buds, and the vibrancy of grains, which grow, is shocked by what it blames, if the crystals crackle. Behind the form, sequence, frequency, and amplitude of impulses, the vibrance can be determined, with some kind of firmness, ice freezes and yak at which the ice structure emerges.

Wrong lead

At the Zhorst camp, water is available, for the rest of the tribute, 14 structural modifications. Among them are crystalline (their greaterness), є amorphous, ale stink, one in the same mutual expansion of water molecules and dominance. It’s true, everything, surrounding the ice that is familiar to us, settles in the minds of exotic ones - for even low temperatures and high pressures, if the water molecules of the water change and the systems settle down, in the form of hexagonal ones. For example, at a temperature lower than -110 ° C, water vapor falls on a metal plate in the form of octahedrons and cubes of the size of a few nanometers - so the titles of cubic ice. Even though the temperature is higher than -110 °, and the concentration of the bet is even lower, a ball of all-clear amorphous ice is formed on the plate.

The two remaining modifications of the ice - XIII and XIV - were recognized by Oxford scientists recently, in 2006. A 40-year-old prophecy about those who are to blame for the crystallization of ice with monoclinic and rhombic grits, it is important to confirm: the viscosity of water at a temperature of -160 ° C is already high, and at once the molecules of pure supercooled water in such a large capacity crystal, that's it. An additional catalyst is hydrochloric acid, which promoted the fragility of water molecules at low temperatures. In terrestrial nature, similar modifications to ice cannot be established, but you can search for them on the frozen satellites of other planets.

The committee wrote like this

Snіzhinka - tse monocrystal ice, a variation on the theme of a hexagonal crystal, ale shvidko, scho virіs, in unimportant minds. Over the mystery of їхної beauty, that inexhaustible diversity, more than one century, there are intoxicating minds. The astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1611 wrote a treatise "On six-fold cuts" in 1611. In 1665, Robert Hooke wrote to the majestic volume of all the details, which he helped with the help of a microscope, publishing impersonal small cuts of various shapes. In 1885, an American farmer, Wilson Bentley, took a photograph of a snowdrop under a microscope in the distance. From that hour, the wines no longer swelled up. Until the end of life, forty years ago, Bentley photographed them. Over five thousand crystals, and the same one.

Nayvidomishi successors help Bentley - tse vzhe fortune-telling Ukihiro Nakaya and American physicist Kenneth Libbrecht. Nakaya first admitted that the size and shape of the cuts lie down depending on the temperature, it was checked in place by a new vologist, and he confirmed this hypothesis experimentally, growing in the laboratory of crystal ice of various shapes. And Libbrecht in his own place, having become fluttering the cuts for the prayer, was far behind the given form.

The life of the reduction begins with the fact that in the gloomy water vapor, at low temperatures, crystal ice germs are established. The center of crystallization can be powders, be it hard particles, or induce ions, but in some way or another, the size of the krizhinka is less than a tenth part of a millimeter, but it can still form a hexagonal crystal lattice.

Water vapor, condensing on the surface of the germs, creates a small hexagonal prism, from six ridges, which initiates the growth of absolutely identical crowns of the bark - bichni vіdrostki. Alone, simply to the fact that the temperature and water content of the germ are the same. On them, at their heart, they grow, like on a tree, bichnі drostki - gnocchi. Similar crystals are called dendrites, which look like a tree.

Passing uphill and down in the gloomy, the snizhinka is spent in the mind with a different temperature and concentration of water vapor. The form changes, until the rest of the time, following the laws of hexagonal symmetry. So the cuts become smaller. Although, theoretically, in the same darkness, on the same height, the stench can be born the same. Ale way to the ground at the skin of the svіy, dosit dovgy - for the average, the reduction decreases from the speed of 0.9 km per year. Also, the skin has its own history and its own residual form. Lid, which makes a reduction, a visionary, but if it’s rich, sleepy light, breaking and rising on the numerical edges, creating in us an enemy of a white opaque mass - we call it snow.

In order not to stray from different cuts, the International Commission for Snow and Ice adopted in 1951 a simple classification of ice crystals: plates, crystal crystals, columns or columns, needles, expanses of dendrites, irregularly shaped tips. And three more types of icy fall: dry snow grains, krizhan grains and hail.

Tim the laws themselves are under order and growing with frost, frost and frost on the windows. These phenomena, like small drops, are settled by condensation, molecule by molecule - earth, grass, trees. Windfalls on the vіknі z'yavlyayutsya in the frost, if on the surface of the slope condenses the air of a warm room air. And the axis of the hailstones emerge when the drops are caught, or if, in thick water vapor, ice balls freeze on the germs of snowflakes. On the hailstones, other snowflakes can freeze, which were formed, fused with them, causing the hailstones to take on the smallest forms.

We on the Earth to finish and odnієї zhorstkoї modifikatsії vod - savage ice. Vіn literally permeates all spheres of living or perebuvannya people. Climbing among the great crystals, snow and ice establish special structures with fundamentally different ones, lower ones with other crystals or smaller ones, with small ones. Mountain ice floes, crizane covers of water areas, permafrost, that simple seasonal snow cover suffices to add to the climate of the great regions of that planet as a whole: navit te, who never got snow, watch on your own, save up, put on the pole , like bagatorichnykh kolivan equal to the ocean of light. And ice maє pavement is of great importance for the serenity of our planet and comfortable living on its living grounds, which vcheni have created for a special middle ground - the cryosphere, as if stretching its water high into the atmosphere and deep into the earth's crust.

Olga Maksimenko, candidate of chemical sciences

In 1929 Burns completed the separation of acid atoms in crystal ice I for additional X-ray diffraction and showed that atoms of acid in crystal ice I are milled at the vertices of the tetrahedron. Have 1957 r. Peterson and Levy, with the help of neutron diffraction, showed that the atoms of water sound at the same time in one of the stations, and their energy is the same at the skin position. The investigations of Peterson and Levi also showed that the crystal does not have the correct tetrahedral symmetry (Fig. 15):

Rice. 15. Reconciliation of the form of the molecule in ice I

The distribution of atoms in acid at the structure of hexagonal ice is shown in fig. 16 (Velli, 1969), where the openwork structure of the crystal is especially well seen through the great corridors. The size of the channels parallel to the Z axis allows for rux of them an atom with a radius of 1.2 A.

The hexagonal structure of the ice crystal is seen in the cubic structure of the ice, which in the first May one quarter of the links are mirror-symmetrical and three quarters of the centrally symmetrical links, in that hour all the links of the ice structure are centrally symmetrical. On fig. 176 representations of possible centrally symmetrical bonds of one fixed molecule (upper molecule) with another molecule in fig. representations of possible mirror-symmetrical links. Atomic water is marked with a + sign, and non-betting with a sign. It can be seen that the electrostatic gravity of the charges localized on the molecule is greater in different mirror-symmetric

(Click to review the scan)

zv'yazkіv, lower in different centrally symmetric zv'yazkіv.

Bjerrum in 1952 having opened the energy of the lattice for a cubic crystal with the use of centrally symmetrical links and with 74 mirror-symmetrical links and taking the value of -14.51 kcal / mol and -14.93 kcal / mol obviously. Bernal and Fowler (1933) and later Pauling, analyzing the semblance of the rich physical powers of the molecule in ice I and pairs, and visnovka, which ice is a molecular crystal.

A crystal is called molecular, which is composed of molecules and is characterized by a significantly weaker intermolecular bond, lower intramolecular. For classical molecular crystals, the ratio of intermolecular crystals to intramolecular ones should be 2 or more times. In ice I, however, the average time between atoms in the molecules becomes 1.01 A, at that hour, the average time between the atom H and the atom of different molecules along the line of the water link becomes 1.75 A, that’s only 1, 7 times more.

In the structure of ice I, the cream of molecules, there is a small part of the ionization defects of the crystal, which indicate its electrical conductivity. Qi defects are settled in the aftermath of the reaction of dissociation of water molecules to ions:

Seen from Bjerrum, they are settled as a result of transitions of protons into one molecule to another molecule with a further ion bottom, which have been established. 186.

Crimson defects Bjerrum in 1952 allowing for the basis of orientational defects, as the molecules of orientation are not compatible with each other, as the main part of the molecules that make up the crystal. On fig. 18a shows the correct orientation of the molecules in the ice crystal (levoruch), the elimination of orientational defects as a result of the rotation of one of the water molecules is shown in the center, a small one and a further hem of the defects as a result of the rotation of another molecule is shown right-handed.

On fig. 186 shows a diagram of the elimination of ionic defects in crystal ice. Zliva again showed the correct distribution of the molecule. Defects are established at the center and after the transition of a proton from the first molecule to another. On the right hand side of the indications is the onset of the transition of a proton from molecule 2 to molecule 3, which signifies a defect in space.

The freedom of proton transfer along the link between two molecules was experimentally revealed in 1957 by the neutron diffraction method. Theoretically, the possibility of transitions of protons - protons without a fret - was used by Pauling earlier, in 1935.

Rice. 18. Defects in crystal ice: a) orientational defects; b) ionization defects.

Підставою для припущення протонного безладдя послужило велике значення залишкової ентропії льоду I, що дорівнює 0,805 кал/моль-град (залишковою ентропією кристала називається ентропія, якою володіє кристал при передбачивши, що залишкова ентропія визначається протонним безладдям, Полінг обчислив теоретично величину залишкової ен.