The history of France. History of France (1789-1914) Important events in France

1789 - The French revolution put an end to the royal unlimited monarchy. Bastille, State Prison and Symbol unlimited power The kings were taken by the Parisian people on July 14, 1789 and a little later destroyed. There are no more subordinates here, but there are citizens. Civil equality has been established, human rights are proclaimed.

1792 - Having passed through the crises and cruelty of this period, which followed the revolution, and which received the name of the terror era, the Government - the National Convention - proclaims the first republic in France.

1804 - Becoming the emperor under the name Napoleon, Bonaparte proclaims the empire and leads war against England and Europe. After some famous victories, obsessed with allied powers, Napoleon's empire collapses in 1814.

1830 - The revolution of July 1830 ends in coming to the throne of the French king Louis Philipp. In memory of these events, the bronze column on the Bastille Square in Paris is towers.

1848 - A revolutionary movement in February 1848 led to the proclamation of the Second Republic, which put the end of the monarchy Louis Philip.

1852-1870 - for the second republic followed the restoration of the empire. After an authoritarian period, the empire becomes more liberal. The years of the second Empire of Napoleon's third were a period of material prosperity, the rapid development of industry and trade. The defeat of France in the war of 1870 put an end to the epoch of the second empire.

1870 - France declares War Prussia. Attempts by the French can not prevent Paris's surrender. France loses its territories - Alsace and Lorraine.

1871 - Revolutionary Government - Comunun Paris - overthrown by the permanent army of the Thieres, who brutally suppresses the uprising.

1870-1940 - The political regime originated after France's surrender in the Franco-Prussian War (3 republic), conducts democratic reforms: freedom and printing, secular education, separation of the church from the state.

1914-1918 - In 1914, France is drawn into a war announced by Germany. She wins in it, but with big losses.

1939-1944 - France announces war in Germany, but that in turn seizes in May 1940. Part of France occupied, the government makes a policy of cooperation with the Germans. General de Gaulle creates resistance that is organized and expanding. In 1944, allies are planted in Normandy and break through towards Paris, which was released on August 25.

1944 - After the liberation of the country, the Constitution adopted by the referendum proclaims the 4 republic.

1958 - After the political and social crisis, the Constitution of the 5th republic was adopted, which significantly strengthens the authority of President Charles de Gaulle. 1968 - In May, a deep university and social crisis occurs in France. General de Gaulle resigns. Other presidents of the 5 republic: George Pompidou, Valerie Giscar d Esten, Francois Mitteraran, Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy.

They began to settle the tribes of the Celts (Galov). It was the galls that were the foundations of the French people, and the country in ancient times was called Gallia.

In 7-6 centuries BC, the Phoenicians and the Greeks founded the colonies here from which they lead to the city of Marseille, Nice and others. In 58-52 BC, Gallium was conquered by the Romans. The invasion of the German tribes of 5-7 centuries put an end to the Roman domination in Gaul. The most stable power was able to create francs in Gaul, they won Gallia at the beginning of the 6th century, giving their name to the country and the people. The territory of modern France became the core of the Franksky state.

By the time of registration of France as the state (9-10th century), the country was divided into many feudal principalities that had stable borders and their linguistic features.

The largest feudal association in the north of France was the Duchy of Normandy. In the extreme northeast, the county of Flanders was strong. In the West, the Duchy of Brittany had full independence. Royal possessions occupied the Earth for the average of the Seine and Loire.

In the south of the country, the Duchy of Toulouse, Gascon, Aquitaine, Marsh, Overweight, Bourbon, were almost completely unstippired king.

Starting from the 30s and 19th century, France led an active complacenial policy in, and at the beginning of World War II became the second after the UK the colonial empire.

1 world War led to great changes in the economy of France. Alsace and Lorraine were returned, Saara was transferred to France for 15 years. By the end of the 20s, the 20th century France turned into an industrial-agricultural country.

During World War II, Paris and 2/3 of the country were occupied. An important role in the fight against fascism was played by the "Free France" movement, which was led from London General Charles de Gaulle.

The war had enough severe consequences for France. The population decreased by 1.1 million people. The country's dependence from the United States has increased. National Liberation Wars in the colonies led to the disintegration of the French colonial empire.

In 1946, a new constitution was adopted (fourth republic). In 1949, France entered the block.

In 1958, General de Gaulle was elected president of France, the Parliamentary Constitution of 1946 was canceled and a new one was approved, that is, the fifth republic appeared. France came out of the NATO military organization (but remained in political). Since 1958, France has been a member of the European Economic Community (EU).

Event: Take the people of the royal fortress Bastilly

king Louis Sixteenth

Outcome:the beginning of the Great French Revolution

Event: "Night of Miracles." Session of the first in the history of France of the People's Constituent Assembly.

What political forces were in power:king Louis Sixteenth

Outcome:the equality of all citizens before the law has been announced. Canceled privileges of clergy and nobles. The church tithing is canceled, which all citizens have paid the church before. Later, the nobility is canceled in general and adopted the first in history Democratic "Declaration of Human Rights and Citizen"

Event: Hike people on Versailles. The king was forcibly taken out of the Versailles Palace and settled in Paris.

What political forces were in power:formally - king, and actually - revolutionaries

Outcome:Absolute monarchy replaced the constitutional. Now it was not a people who wanted the king, but the king performed the will of the Constituent Assembly

Event:lowdle King Louis of the Paris Communication

What political forces were in power:Paris commune rebel revolutionaries. Mostly it is guardsmen, soldiers and ordinary townspeople.

Outcome:Prussia, defending the king, began a war with France. The king is imprisoned.

Event:proclamation of France Republic

What political forces were in power:France National Convention (Gurondovers Part).

Outcome:Monarchy in the country is abolished in general

Event:sixteenth Louis execution in Paris

What political forces were in power:National Convention (Girondists)

Outcome: France in a state of war with several powers of Europe, protecting the monarchy: Prussia, England, Spain.

Event:yakobintsev uprising

What political forces were in power:Girondists and Montagniary

Outcome:split among revolutionaries, coming to the power of Jacobins and Montagnar. The beginning of a cruel revolutionary terror of the population. Girondists executed. All material benefits of citizens were selected in the interests of revolution and war.

Event:the execution of the Queen Mary-Antoinette, the wife of Louis of Sixteenth

What political forces were in power:jacobin National Convention and Paris Commune

Outcome:another "enemy of the revolution" was destroyed

Event:Thermidorian coup. Split among the leadership of revolutionaries. Commune with weapons in his hands spoke on the side of Robespierre against other Jacobins.

What political forces were in power: Paris commune and national convention.

Outcome:Robespierre suffered defeat and executed together with supporters. Paris commune fell. The revolution weakened, and the Jacobinians themselves began to persecute.

Event: Coup 18 Brother

What political forces were in power:Directory

Outcome:The end of the Great French Revolution. The victory of the military monarchy represented by Napoleon's Bonaparte, who proclaimed the power of the temporary government in the person of three consuls, one of which was he himself. Later he will take power alone in his hands.

The Great French Revolution is the general name of the processes engaged in France at the end of the 1780s - the first half of the 1790s. Revolutionary changes were radical, they called:

• breaking the old system
• elimination of the monarchy
• a gradual transition to a democratic system.

In general, the revolution was a bourgeois, directed against the monarchical system and feudal remnants.

Chronologically revolution covers the period from 1789 to 1794, although some historians believe that she ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Participants

The Great French Revolution was based on the confrontation of the privileged nobility, the former support of the monarchist building, and the "third class". The latter was presented by such groups as:

• Peasants;
• Bourgeoisie;
• Workers manufactory;
• Urban poor or plebs.

The head of the uprising was the representatives of the bourgeoisie, which did not always take into account the needs of other groups of the population.

Prerequisites and main reasons for revolution

In the late 1780s. In France, the protracted political, economic and social crisis broke out. Changes required plebs, peasants, bourgeoisie and workers who did not want to put up with such a state of affairs.

One of the most difficult issues was an agrarian, which was constantly complicated due to the deep crisis of the feudal system. Her relics prevented to develop market relations, the penetration of capitalist began in agriculture and industry, the emergence of new professions and production areas.

Among the main causes of the Great French Revolution should be noted such as:

• Trade and industrial crisis that began in 1787;
• Bankruptcy of the king and deficit of the country's budget;
• Several disastrous years, led to the peasant uprisings of 1788-1789. In a number of cities - Grenoble, Besanson, Rennes and the suburb of Paris - a series of Plebs performances was held;
• The monarchist crisis. At the royal court, attempts were made to solve the problems that had arisen, but methods of overcoming the system crisis to which officials were resorted to, hopelessly outdated and did not work. Therefore, King Louis XVI decided to go for certain concessions. In particular, notable and general states were convened, which was last gathered in 1614. Representatives of the third estate attended the general states meeting. The latter created the National Assembly, which became soon constant.

The nobility and preferred layers of French society, including the clergy, spoke against such equality, and began to prepare the excretion of the assembly. In addition, they did not accept the proposal of the king to establish their taxes. Peasants, bourgeoisie, workers and plebs began to prepare for a nationwide uprising. An attempt to dispersed him was brought on July 13 and 14, 1789 on the streets of Paris many representatives of the third estate. So the Great French Revolution began, who changed France forever.

Stages of revolution

Subsequent events are customary to divide for several periods:

• From July 14, 1789 - on August 10, 1792;
• From August 10, 1792 - on June 3, 1793;
• June 3, 1793 - July 28, 1794;
• July 28, 1794 - to November 9, 1799

The first stage began with the seizure of the most famous French prison - Bastilly Fortress. Also, the following events include this period:

• Replacement of old authorities for new;
• The creation of the National Guard submitted to the bourgeoisie;
• Adoption in the fall of 1789;
• The adoption of a number of decrees concerning the rights of the bourgeoisie and plebs. In particular, class division was eliminated, church property was confiscated, the clergy passed under the control of secular authorities, the old administrative division of the country was canceled and the workshops were abolished. Most tensely passed the cancellation of feudal duties, but as a result, the rebels managed to achieve this;
• The emergence of the so-called Varennsky crisis in the first half of the summer of 1791. The crisis was associated with the king's attempt to escape abroad. This event is connected: shooting demonstrations on a Mars field; The beginning of the opposition of the poorest layers of the population and the bourgeoisie, which passed on the side of the nobility; as well as a separation from the revolutionary club of the Jacobinians of the Moderate Political Party of Felianov;
• The constant contradictions between the main political forces - the girondists, fellians and the Jacobinians, which facilitated other European states into the territory of France to other European countries. During 1792-1792. The war was announced by the war to the revolution: Prussia, Sardinia, United Kingdom, Austria, Neapolitan Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands and some German principalities. The French army was not ready for such a turn of events, especially since most generals ran out of the country. Due to the threat of an attack on the capital in Paris, the detachments of volunteers began to arise;
• Activation of antimonarchical movement. On August 10, 1792, the final overthrow of the monarchy and the creation of the Paris commune occurred.

The main line of the second stage of the revolution was the confrontation between the girondists and the Jacobins. The leaders of the first were J.P. Brisso, J.M. Roland and P.V. Veno, speaking on the side of trading, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. This party wished the speedy ending of the revolution and establishing political stability. Jacobintsev headed M. Robespierre, J.P. Marat and J.Zh. Danon, who were middle-class representatives and poor bourgeois. They defended the interests of workers and peasants, and also advocated the further development of the revolution, since their requirements remained untouched.

The main events of the second period of the Great French Revolution were:

• The struggle between the Paris Communication, controlled by the Jacobins, and the Legislative Assembly of the Girondists. The consequence of the confrontation was the creation of a convention, whose representatives were elected from the entire male population of France over 21 years on the basis of universal election law;
• Proclamation of France by the Republic of September 21, 1792;
• The execution of the last king of the bourbon dynasty January 21, 1793;
• Continuation of peasant performances caused by poverty, landlessness and hunger. The poor captured the estates of their Lord and shared community land. Citizens are also rebeling, requiring the establishment of solid prices for products;
• Exile of Gurondovers from the Convention at the end of May - early June 1793. This completed the second period of the uprising.

Getting rid of opponents allowed the Jacobinians to focus all the completeness of power into their hands. The third period of the Great French Revolution is known as the Jacobin dictatorship and, first of all, is associated with the name of the head of Jacobintsev - Maximilian Robespierre. It was a rather difficult period for the young republic - while the internal contradictions spread the country into parts, the troops of the neighboring powers were taken to the borders of the state. France was involved in the Vandy Wars, which swept the southern and northwestern provinces.

Jacobinians, first of all, took up the decision of the agrarian question. All community land and the fault of the fizz, the nobles were transferred to the peasants. Then they canceled feudal rights, and privileges, which contributed to the formation of a new class of society - free owners.

The next step was the adoption of a new constitution, which was distinguished by a democratic character. It was assumed to introduce a constitutional board, but the comprehensive socio-political and economic crisis forced the Jacobins to establish a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship regime.

At the end of August 1793, decree was adopted on the mobilization of the French on the fight against foreign interventory. In response, the opponents of Jacobinians who have become massively conducting act of terrorism In all cities of France. As a result, Marat was killed by one of these shares.

At the end of July 1796, the republican troops broke the arches for the Fleurus. The latest decisions of the Jacobinians were the adoption of the Vantozsky decrees, which were not destined to be implemented. Dictatorship, repression and policies of the requisition (expropriation) were configured against the peasant jobs regime. As a result, a conspiracy was argued aimed at the overthrow of the Robespierre government. The so-called thermidarian coup put an end to the Board of Jacobins and led to power of moderate Republicans and bourgeoisie. They created a new governance authority - directory. New power spent a number of transformations in the country:

• Adopted a new constitution;
• I replaced the universal eligible right to the valuable (admission to the elections received only those citizens who possessed property for a certain amount);
• Set the principle of equality;
• She endowed the right to elect and be elected only those republics of the republic, who turned 25 years;
• Created the Council of the five hundred and the council of the oldest following the political situation in France;
• War led against Prussia and Spain, completed by the signing of peace treaties. Continued military actions against England and Austria.

The board of the directory ended on November 9, 1799, when another coup in the republic occurred. He was headed by the General of the Army Napoleon Bonaparte, which enjoy great popularity among the soldiers. Relying on the military, he managed to capture power in Paris, which became the beginning new era In the life of the country.

Results and results of the revolution

• Elimination of the remnants of the feudal system, which contributed to the rapid development of capitalist relations;
• The establishment of a republican system based on democratic principles;
• Final consolidation of the French nation;
• The formation of the authorities formed on the basis of electoral law;
• The adoption of the first constitutions whose provisions guaranteed citizens equality to the law and the ability to use national wealth;
• Agricultural question;
• Liquidation of the monarchy;
• Adoption of the Declaration of Human Rights and Citizen.

However, positive transformations contained a number of negative features:

• Introduction of property cencing;
• Ignoring the opinions of most citizens, which led to new unrest;
• The establishment of complex administrative division, which prevented the formation of an effective management system.

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and the establishment of the Empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and the establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, the economic recession began in France, gradually transferred to the crisis: the production fell, the French market was flooded cheaper English goods; It was added to the crop and natural disasters that led to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful war and the support of the American revolution. The income was lacking (by 1788 the costs exceeded incomes by 20%), and the treasury took loans, the interest on which were in motitive. The only way to increase receipts in the treasury was to deprive tax privileges the first and second estate In the old manner, the French society shared for three estates: the first is the clergy, the second is the nobility and the third - all the others. The first two estates had a number of privileges, including those were released from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to cancel the tax privileges of the first two classes failed, having met the resistance of the noble parliaments Parliaments - Before the revolution, the highest courts of fourteen regions of France. Until the XV century, there was only the Paris parliament, then the remaining thirteen appeared. (that is, the highest vessels of the period of the old order). Then the government announced the convening of general states General States - a body that included representatives of three classes and convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve the political crisis). Each class fell separately and had one voice.In which representatives of all three classes were included. Unexpectedly for the crown it caused a wide public lift: hundreds of pamphlets were published, the voters constituted the deputies: few people sought to revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The poor nobility demanded from the crown of financial support, at the same time counting on the restriction of its power; The peasants protested against the rights of seniors and hoped to get the land of ownership; Among the citizens became popular ideas of enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to posts (in January 1789, the broad fame of the Brochure Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieses "What is the third estate?", Conducting the next passage: "1. What is the third estate ? - all. 2. What has it been in politically? - No. 3. What does it require? - Become something "). Relying on the ideas of the Epoch of Enlightenment, many have believed that the highest power in the country should have a nation, and not the king that the absolute monarchy should be replaced by the limited and that the traditional right should be replaced by the Constitution - a meeting of clearly prescribed laws, uniforms for all citizens.

Great French Revolution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Taking Bastille July 14, 1789. Picture of Jean Pierre Wales. 1789 year

BIBLIOTHèQUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE

Chronology

The beginning of the work of general states

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Taking Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of Human Rights and Citizen

Adoption of the first French Constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of general states was opened in Versailles. According to the tradition of voting, each class was one voice. Deputies from the third class, which was twice as much as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not go for it. In addition, contrary to the expectations of deputies, the authorities carried out only financial transformations for discussion. On June 17, deputies from the third estate declared themselves to the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they swore not to disperse until the Constitution was developed. After some time, the National Assembly announced itself to the Constituent Assembly, declareing, therefore, the intention to establish a new state system to establish in France.

Soon, in Paris, he had a rumor that the government would tighten into the Versailles of the troops and plans to disperse the Constituent Assembly. In Paris, the uprising began; July 14, counting the seizure of the weapon, the people took the storm Bastilia. This symbolic event is considered to be the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into a higher power in the country: Louis XVI, striving at any cost to avoid bloodshed, sooner or later, they argued any of his decrees. Thus, from 5 to 11 August, all the peasants became personally free, and the privileges of two classes and individual regions were canceled.

Overthrow of an absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of Human Rights and Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was located, and demanded that the king, along with his family he moved to Paris and approved a declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the Constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

By adopting a constitution, the constituent assembly was separated. The laws now approved the Legislative Assembly. The executive authorities remained at the king, which turned into an official who obeys the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but were elected; The property of the church was nationalized and sold out.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood\u2028". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790 in the non-credible speech Maximilian Robespierre - one of the most influential French revolutionaries, in 1789 elected to general states from the third estate.

Bastille. By July 14, in Bastille, an ancient royal prison, there were only seven prisoners, so she had a symbolic storm, and not a pragmatic meaning, although they took it in the hope of finding weapons there. By the decision of the municipality, the Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of human rights and citizen. The declaration of human rights has read that "people are born and remain free and equal in rights," and declared natural and integral human rights to freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression. In addition, she secured freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished class and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still underlies the French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

King's execution and the establishment of the Republic

The last moments of Louis Louis XVI. Engraving in the picture of Charles Benazene. 1793 year

Wellcome Library

Chronology

The beginning of war with Austria

The overthrow of Louis XVI.

Beginning of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

August 27, 1791 in the Saxon Castle Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm II and the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire Leopold II (Brother Wisen Louis XVI Maria-Antoinette) under the pressure of the aristocrats emigrated from France signed a document that declared their readiness to support the King France, including military . Girongists Girongists - A circle that exists around the deputies from the Girona Department, who advocated further transformations, but adhered to relatively temperate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the King's execution., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to incline the legislative assembly to war with Austria, which was announced on April 20, 1792. When French troops began to endure defeats, they accused the royal family.

The overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising occurred, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and entered into custody on charges of betrayal of national interests. The Legislative Assembly has multiplied its authority: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, a new legislature was assembled - the chosen national convention, the first thing proclaimed France by the Republic.

In December, the court began, who recognized the king guilty of maliciousness against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to the death penalty.

Symbols

Marseillaise. A march written by Claude Joseph Ruju de Lihal (military engineer, part-time - poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, Marselyza became the national anthem of France, lost this status in Napoleon and, finally, returned it in 1879 at the third republic. By the second half of the XIX century, the international song of the left resistance became the international song.

Jacobin dictatorship, thermidorian coup and consulate establishment

The overthrow of Robespierre in the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Picture of Max Adamo. 1870

Alte NationalGalerie, Berlin

Chronology

Decree of the Convention is formed by an emergency criminal tribunal, which in October will be renamed the revolutionary tribunal

Creating a public salvation committee

Exile of Gurondovers from Convention

Adoption of the Constitution of the I Year, or Montagnian Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

The execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution III. Formation of directories

Coup 18 Brother. Change directory consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to endure failures in the war. Inside the country flashed methers of monarchists. In March 1793, the Convent created the revolutionary tribunal, which was supposed to judge "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after him - the Committee of Public Rescue, which was to coordinate the inner and foreign Policy countries.

Exile of Gurondists, Jacobin Dictatorship

Girogondists received a great influence in the commit salvation committee. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed indignation by the fact that Paris imposes her will of the country. Comparent Montagniars Montagniary - relatively radical group, based on, in particular, on urban poor. The name comes from the French word Montagne - Mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, the members of this group usually occupied places in the upper ranks on the left side of the hall. They sent against the girondists of dissatisfied urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, the Convention gathered a crowd, who demanded to exclude the girondists, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondists gave under the home arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotized by the sentence of the revolutionary tribunal.

The expulsion of the girondists led to civil War. Moreover, at the same time France led the war with many European states, the Constitution, adopted in 1793, did not enter into force: before the world's occurrence, the Convention was introduced "temporary revolutionary management order." Almost all the power was now concentrated in his hands; In place, the Convention sent commissars who have enormous powers. Montaganyar, who now had a huge advantage in Convention, declared their opponents with the enemies of the people and sentenced to guillotine. Montagniars canceled all senorial duties and began to sell out the farmers of the Emigrants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which prices could rise for the most necessary goods, including bread; In order to avoid the deficit, they had to take the grain from the peasants.

By the end of 1793, most rebellies were suppressed, and the situation on the front is crushed - the French army moved to the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention adopted the "Suspicious Law", which prescribed to keep all the people under arrest, who were not accused of any crime, but could make him. From June 1794, interrogations of the defendants and their right to lawyers were abolished in the Revolutionary Tribunal, as well as the mandatory interrogations of witnesses; For people recognized by the tribunal guilty, only one punishment was now envisaged - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, Robsisters started talking about the fact that the last wave of executions, which will clean the convention from opponents of the revolution. Almost all convement members felt that their life was threatened. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidors of II of the Year for the Revolutionary Calendar), Montanyarov leader Maximilian Robespierre and many of his supporters were arrested by the convention members who fear for their lives. July 28, they were executed.

After the coup, terror quickly went to the decline, Jacobin club Jacobin Club - Political club formed in 1789 and gathered in the Jacobin monastery. Official name - Society of friends of the Constitution. Many of his members were deputies of the constituent and legislative assemblies, and then the convention; They played a big role in the politics of Terror. was closed. The power of the community salvation committee decreased. Thermidorians Thermidorians - Members of the Convention, who supported the thermal coup. The universal amnesty was proclaimed, many surviving girondists returned to the convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was awarded the two-challenged legislative corps, and the executive - directory consisting of five directors, whom Satareshin (Upper Chamber of the Legislative Corps) chose from the list submitted by the five hundred (Lower Chamber) from the list. Directories sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not too successfully: how, September 4, 1797, the directory, using the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, an extremely popular as a result of his military success in Italy, announced a martial law in Paris and annulled the election results in Paris The legislative corps in many regions of France, since the majorists have now received the pianos, which now have quite a strong opposition.

Coup 18 Brother

The new plot was ripe inside the directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brother's VIII of the Republic), two out of five directors, together with Bonapar Tom, made a coup, disperse the Council of five hundred and the Council of Elders. The directory was also deprived of power. Instead, there was a consulate - the government, which consisted of three consuls. They became all three conspirators.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the official flag of France became the tricolor. TO white color Bourbon used on the flag before the revolution was added blue, symbol of Paris, and red - the color of the national guard.

Republican calendar.On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was introduced in turnover, the first year according to which was 1792. All months in the calendar received new names: the time from the revolution was to begin again. In 1806, the calendar was canceled.

Louvre Museum.Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were discovered to visit and before the revolution, the Palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

Napoleon's turn of Bonaparte and the establishment of the Empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, the first consul. Fragment of Jean Mailusta Dominica Engra. 1803-1804 years

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII, who has established a dictatorship of the first consul

The adoption of the Constitution of the X Year, who made the authority of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII, the proclamation of Napoleon by the emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new Constitution was adopted (the Constitution of the VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. The government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the Constitution, and selecting for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). The first of the three consuls was named after Napoleon Bonaparte. In his hands, almost all real power was concentrated: only he had the right to offer new laws, to appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, higher military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of authorities and folk sovereignty actually canceled.

In 1802, the State Council issued a referendum on whether the Bonaparte will be made by the consul life. As a result, the consulate was lifelong, and the first consul received the right to appoint a successor to himself.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was revealed, the purpose of which turned out to be the murder of Napoleon. After that, the proposals began to make the power of Napoleon hereditary in order to eliminate the like in the future.

Estimation of the Empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by a referendum. The Republic of China has now been transmitted to the "Emperor of the French", which Napoleon Bonaparte was announced. In December, the emperor coroned Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code was adopted with the participation of Napoleon - a set of laws regulating the lives of French citizens. The Code claimed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of land ownership and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finance: due to permanent sets in the army and in the village, and in the city managed to cope with the excess of working hands, which led to increasing income. He rigidly straightened with the opposition and limited the freedom of speech. The role of propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, on which the eagle was depicted - the symbol of the Roman Empire, who was present on the coat of arms of other great powers.

Bee.This symbol, ascending to the Merovingians, has become a personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced a lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. When Napoleon, the walk received a coin called by Napoleondor (Napoléon d'OR, literally - "Golden Napoleon"): It shows the profile of Bonaparte.

Legion of Honor.Order, established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the Order testified to the official recognition of special merit to France.

Restoration of Bourbon and July monarchy

Freedom, leading people. Picture of Ezhen Delacroix. 1830

Musée du Louvre.

Chronology

Invasion of Napoleon to Russia

Taking Moscow

Battle under Leipzig ("Battle of Peoples")

The renunciation of Napoleon from the throne, the proclamation of the King of Louis XVIII

Disclosure of the Charter of 1814

Napoleon's Escape with Elba

Paris take

Battle at Waterloo

Napoleon's reincarnation

Edema for the throne of Charles X

Signing of July Ordonans

Mass excitement

Refraction of Charles X from the throne

The oath of the Duke of Orleans on the loyalty of the new Charter. From this day he became the king of the French Louis Philipp I

As a result of Napoleonic wars, the French Empire has become the most powerful European power with a sustainable state system and in order finances. In 1806, Napoleon banned all the European countries to trade him to trade with England -In the result of the Industrial Revolution, England pushed French products from the markets. The so-called continental blockade damaged the British economy, but by 1811 the economic crisis caused by this has affected the entire Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops on the Pyrenean Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to start the retreat of Moscow busy in September.

Restoration of Bourbonov
On October 16-19, 1813, a battle was held near Leipzig, in which the Napoleonic army was crushed. In April 1814, Napoleon renounced the throne and went to the link to the island of Elba, and Louis Xviii, the brother of the executed Louis XVI asked the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to give the people the Constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, in accordance with which each new law should be approved by two parliament chambers. In France, a constitutional monarchy was established again, but the election law was not all citizens and not even for all adult men, but only in those who possessed a certain level of wealth.

One hundred days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have folk support, Napoleon fled on February 26, 1815 with Elba and on March 1 landed in France. It was joined by a significant part of the army, and less than in a month Napoleon did not occupy Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate with European countries about the world failed, and he had to join the war. On June 18, the French army was crushed by the Anglo-Prussian troops in the battle of Waterloo, on June 22, Napoleon again renounced the throne, and on July 15, the British surrendered and went to the link to the island of Saint Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Karl X was asked for the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, until the chambers of deputies did not work, Karl appointed the Minister of Foreign Affairs the extremely unpopular prince Jules Auguste Arman Marie Polignak. On July 25, 1830, the king signed orders (decrees that had the strength of state laws) - on temporary abolition of freedom of printing, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, an increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower chamber. Many newspapers were closed.

Charles X ordans caused mass outrage. On July 27, the riots began in Paris, and already on July 29, the revolution was completed, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Karl X renounced the throne and went to England.

The new king of France was the duke of Orleans Louis Philipp, a representative of the younger branch of Bourbon, who had a relatively liberal reputation. During the coronation, he swore at the Charter of 1830, compiled by the deputies, and became not the "king of the grace of God," as his predecessors, but the "king of the French". The new constitution has lowered not only the property, but also the age qualifications for voters, deprived the king of the legislative power, banned the censorship and returned the three-color flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with three lilies returned to the shift with the eagle, symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom, leading people." The famous picture of Ezhen Delacroix, in the center of which was depicted by Marianna (since 1792, symbolizing the French Republic) with the French tricolor in his hand as an personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July 19930 revolution.

Revolution of 1848 and the establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartin before the Town Hall of Paris rejects the Red Flag on February 25, 1848. Picture of Henri Felix Emmanuel Filippoto

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

Start of mass riots

Resignation of Gizo Government

Approval of the new Constitution that secured the republican form of government




Universal presidential elections, victory Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policy of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister Francois Gizo, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal electoral law, ceased to arrange many: some demanded the expansion of electoral law, others - the return of the republic and the introduction of election law for all. In 1846 and 1847 there was a bad harvest. He began hunger. Since the rallies were forbidden, in 1847, political banquets acquired popularity on which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts were proclaimed. Political banquets were prohibited in February.

Revolution of 1848.
The prohibition of political banquets caused mass riots. On February 23, the Prime Minister Francois Gizo resigned. A huge crowd was waiting for his exit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the protected ministry soldiers fired - most likely, by oversight, and it gave rise to a bloodshed collision. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved toward the Royal Palace. The king renounced the throne and escaped to England. In France, the republic was proclaimed and universal eligible right for men over 21 years. Parliament (who returned the name "National Assembly") again became unique.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential elections took place, at which Napoleon's nephew was unexpectedly defeated - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans received only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected at the Paris streets at each revolution, however, it was during the revolution of 1848 almost all of Paris were barricaded. As a material for barricades, Paris Omnibuses running in the late 1820s were used.

Coup 1851 and the second Empire

Portrait of the emperor Napoleon III. FRANT FRANT FRANT WINTERKHALTER PICTURE. 1855 year

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

Disclosure to the new constitution. Amendments made to its text on December 25 of the same year, the second empire was created.

Proclamation of Napoleon III Emperor French

Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence in the president, no parliament, nor the people. In 1852, the term of presidential powers Louis Napoleon approached an end. According to the Constitution of 1848, he could be elected again after the next four-year period. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the Constitution, but the legislative assembly was against.

Coup 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who appeared to support the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested his opposition-minded members. The riots started in Paris and in the provinces were rigidly suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, for ten years extended presidential powers. In addition, the two-chart parliament was returned, and the deputies of his upper chamber were appointed by the president for life.

Restoration of the Empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate assigned to Louis Napoleon offered to restore the empire. As a result of the referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the Parliament's authority was reduced, and the freedom of the press was limited, but since the 1860s the course has changed. In order to strengthen its authority, Napoleon began new wars. He planned to cancel the decisions of the Vienna Congress and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation's own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
September 4, France again proclaimed the republic. A temporary government was chosen, which was headed by Adolf Tyer.

On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. Hunger came in the city, the situation was aggravated. In February 1871, elections were held in the National Assembly, in which the majority of the monarchists received. Adolf Tier became the head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by the German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many citizens perceived as treason.

In March, the government who did not have any funds refused to pay the salary of the National Guard and tried to disarm it.

Paris commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they had elections to the Paris Commune - the Council of the city of Paris. The government headed by Tieter fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune lasted for a short time: on May 21, government troops switched to the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed - the week of battles between troops and communites was named "Bloody Week."

After the fall of the commune, the position of monarchists intensified again, but because they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was preserved. In 1875, constitutional laws were adopted, approved by the presidency and parliament, chosen on the basis of universal election law for men. The third republic existed until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France remains republican, the executive power moves from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, however, members of the commune, among which there were many socialists, preferred one-year-old red. The attributes of the Paris commune - one of the key events for the formation of a communist ideology - was taken over by Russian revolutionary.

Vandom column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Wandom column established in honor of the victory of Napoleon with Austerlice. In 1875, the column was established again.

Sacre Cour. Basilica in the Nonologan style was laid in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian war and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors thanks Dmitry Bovykin for help in working on the material.