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Federal Intellectual Property Service, Patents and Trademarks

State educational institution Higher professional education

Russian State Institute of Intellectual Property (RGIIS)

Faculty of Intellectual Property Management

by discipline: culturalology

on the topic: Byzantium: specificity of the culture type

Moscow, 2010.

Introduction

This abstract is devoted to the disclosure of the specifics of the Culture of the Byzantine Empire. This state has made a great contribution to the development of world culture. In the artistic work of Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which was distinguished by the noble grace of forms, shaped by the vision of thought, the refinement of aesthetic thinking, the depth of philosophical thought. According to expressiveness and deep spirituality of Byzantium, many centuries stood ahead of all countries of medieval Europe. The direct heiress of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium always remained the center as peculiar and truly brilliant culture.

The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management. The purpose of this abstract is the study of the culture of the Byzantine Empire at different stages of development, as well as its specificity and feature.

Culture of the Byzantine Empire

Byzanthimary stud, Byzanthima (Greek. BHPFLICKYY SCHBBYBYA BHFPSBFPSEB - "Eastern Empire Romans"; Greek. Skzhbnfyu BHFPSBFPSEB - Byzantine Empire; Greek. Vekhnfip - Byzantium) - the name of the Eastern Roman Empire in Western Historical Science. The name "Byzantine Empire" (on the city of Vizamntine, which the Roman Emperor Konstantin I has turned into an alternative Rome of the Empire, Constantinople), received the state in the works of Western European historians after his fall. The Byzantines themselves called themselves the Romans - in Greek "Romainee," and their power - "Roman", "Romary" (Greek. Wawayyab f? N? Shkambyachn). Western sources are also called the Byzantine Empire "Romania" (Romania, Leschumbnab in Greek). For a large part of its history, many of the Western contemporaries called her "the Greek Empire" because of the domination of the Greek population and culture. In ancient Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek kingdom", and its capital is "Tsargrad". The capital of Byzantium throughout its history was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The greatest territories of the Empire controlled under the Emperor Justinian I (527--565). From this time, the state gradually lost ground under the onslaught of the barbaric kingdoms and Eastern European tribes. After arab conquest The empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Malaya Asia. Some strengthening in the IX - XI centuries changed serious losses, the collapse of the country under the blows of the Crusaders and the death under the onslaught of the Turks-Seljuk and Turkish Osman.

The Byzantine Empire arose at the turn of two eras - the crash of the late antiquity and the birth of a medieval society as a result of the separation of the Roman Empire to the eastern and western part. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the concept of the World Roman rule, the title of emperor and the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe world monarchy, as well as the traditions of ancient education survived only in the East - in the Byzantine Empire.

· The most important factors in the culture of Byzantium are: in Byzantium there was a language community (the main language was Greek);

· The Byzantium had a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

· In Byzantium, with all the multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks;

· The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management.

The development process of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had era of the rise and decline, periods of the celebration of progressive ideas and the gloomy years of the domination of the reaction. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times.

Therefore, the Culture of Byzantium is an interesting cultural and historical type, which has very specific peculiarities.

In the history of the culture of Byzantium, three stages are distinguished:

· Early (IV - middle of the VII century);

average (VII - IX century);

· Late (X - XV century).

So, consider these stages in more detail.

Early stage of the culture of Byzantium (IV - VII.centuries)

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be viewed as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of the Byzantine society, based on the traditions of the pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. In the early Byzantium, the new flourishing is experiencing the philosophy of neoplatonism. A number of neopotonikov philosophers appear - Burner, Diarat, Plotin, Pseudo-Dionysius, Areopagitis.

The formation of neoplatonism coincides with the origin of Christianity, with the decomposition and decline of the risk empire. In general, it is characterized by deep pessimism, disappointment in the earthly life, the conviction of the corruption of human nature.

The most important themes of theological discussions at the early stage of the development of this cult was disputes about the nature of Christ and his place in the Trinity, the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe and the limit of its capabilities.

The main Christian dogmas, in particular the Symbol of Faith, were enshrined at the I Ecumenical Cathedral in Naquea (325) and confirmed at the II Ecumenical Cathedral in Constantinople (381).

The flourishing of the Byzantine art of the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire during Justinian.

The chief architectural structure was the temple, the so-called Basilica (Greek. "Tsarsky House"), the appointment of which was significantly different from other buildings. Byzantine temples became the place where believers were going to worship.

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the church of St. Vitaly in Ravenna - amazes sophistication and elegance architectural forms. Special fame to this temple was brought by his famous mosaics not only a church, but also secular character, in particular the images of the emperor of Justinian and the empress of the farodore and their suits.

In painting VI-VII centuries. Crystallizes a specific Byzantine image, purified from foreign influences. It is based on the experience of the masters of the East and the West, corresponding to the spiritualistic ideals of the medieval society. The music occupied a special place in the Byzantine civilization.

A peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democratism could not affect the nature of the musical culture, which represented a complex and long-life phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status, is included in the system of represented state power. Special color preserved music of urban streets, theater and circus ideas and folk festivals, which reflected the richest song and musical practice of many nations who inhabited the empire. The education system also inherits the Greco-Roman traditions, based on the principle of seven free arts. Two levels of education:

1) Trivium - grammar, rhetoric and dialectics.

2) Quadrivium - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. In the life of the wide masses, mass spectacles played a huge role. Instead of the theater, a circus (hippodrome) appears with its equestrian rhysts, using great popularity. If you summarize the first period of the existence of Byzantium, we can say that during this period the main features of the Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, it should be attributed to the fact that the Byzantine culture was opened by other cultural influences obtained from the outside. But gradually in the early period, they were synthesized by the main, leading Greek-Roman culture.

The culture of early Byzantium was urban culture. The major cities of the Empire, and first of all Konstantinople, were not only cities of crafts and trade, but also the foci of the highest culture and education.

The middle stage of the culture of Byzantium (VII - IX.centuries)

An important component of the second stage of the history of the Byzantine culture was the confrontation of the iconoborets and iconocrators (726-843). The first direction was supported by the ruling secular elite, and the second - orthodox clergy and many layers of the population. The iconoborets, claiming the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indescribableness and unknownness of the deity, seeking to preserve the sublime spirituality of Christianity, ratified the abolition of worshiping icons and other images of Christ, the Virgin and Saints, seeing the exhaustion of the carnal beginning and the remnant of antiquity. At a certain stage, the iconobors won the top, therefore, in Byzantine Christian art, ornamental and decorative abstract-symbolic elements prevailed for some time. But after all, the final victory won supporters of icon. Reaching the art of colored mosaic image during this period of a new heyday. In the IX-XI centuries. Restored and old monuments. Mosaics resumed and in the church of St. Sofia. There were new plots in which the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Union of the Church with the state was reflected. In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine Cultural Circle, the same cross-domed composition was dominated, which arose in the VI century. and was characterized by a weakly pronounced external decorative design. The LIGHT VALUE OF THE FACADE DECOR has acquired in the IX-X centuries, when it originated and received the distribution of a new architectural style. The appearance of a new style was associated with the flowering of cities, the strengthening of the public role of the Church, a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as the image of the world). Many new temples were raised, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were usually small in size.

In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, architectural forms changed, the composition itself. The value of vertical lines and facade members increased, which changed the silhouette of the temple.

Builders have increasingly resorted to the use of patterned brickwork. In the VIII-XII centuries. There was a special musical and poetic church art. Thanks to its high artistic advantages, weakened the impact on the church music of the music of folklore, whose melodies were previously penetrated even in Liturgy.

In order to even greater insulation of the musical foundations of worship from external influences, the canonization of the Lotonal system was carried out - "Octocyha" (octalia). They were some melodic formulas. However, musical and theoretical monuments make it possible to conclude that the Ijosov system does not exclude the sound understanding. The most popular genres of church music were canon (Music - poetic composition during the church service) and a trophar (almost the main cell of Byzantine gymnography). The trails were composed of all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates. Social life also did not do without music. In the book "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine courtyard", almost 400 chants reported.

These are songs - processions, and songs during equestrian processes, and songs in the imperial feast, and song-acclaiming, etc. As a result of the second period, it can be noted that Byzantium at this time reached the highest power and the highest point of development of culture. In public development and in the evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are obvious due to its midrange between East and West.

Late stage of the culture of Byzantium(X - XVcenturies)

With x in. There is a new stage of the history of Byzantine culture - there is a generalization and classification of everything achieved in science, theology, philosophy, literature. In the Byzantine culture, this age is associated with the creation of works of a generalizing nature - composed of encyclopedia on history, agriculture, medicine. The treatises of Emperor Konstantin Bagryanorogennoe (913--959) "On Management of the State", "On Femakh", "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine Court" - an extensive encyclopedia of the most worthwhile information on the political and administrative structure of the Byzantine state. At the same time, the colorful material of the ethnographic and historical and geographical nature of the neighborhoods with the Empire and nations is assembled here, including the Slavs. In culture, generalized spiritualistic principles are fully triumph; Public thought, literature and art, as it were, come off from real reality and get closed in a circle of higher, abstract ideas. The basic principles of the Byzantine aesthetics are finalized. The perfect aesthetic object is transferred to the spiritual sphere, and it is now described using such aesthetic categories as beautiful, light, color, image, sign, symbol. In artistic creativity, traditionalism is predominant, canonism; Art now does not contradict the dogmas of official religion, but actively serves them. The literature detects trends towards the democratization of the language and the plot, to the individualization of the author's face, to the manifestation of the author's position; It originates critical attitude towards the ascetic monastic ideal and slip religious doubts. Literary life becomes more intense, literary circles arise. Significant heyday reaches during this period and Byzantine art. Constantinople capture Crusaders in 1204 led to the collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the short-term existence of the Latin Empire (1204-1261) and the possessions of Latin barons on the land of Byzantium. In the sphere of culture, this episode marks the cultural interaction of Greek and Western civilizations. The Catholic Church made great efforts to spread among the Greeks of Latin culture and Catholic creed. Already in 1205, an attempt was made to establish a Catholic University in Constantinople, and the monastery of Catholicism in the Latin Empire became the center of Catholicism in the Latin Empire. Dominica in Constantinople, where in 1252 by the monk bartolomeum was compiled a polemical work "against the mistakes of the Greeks". At the same time, the Byzantine culture began to influence both the enlightened people arriving from the West. Thus, Catholic Archbishop Corinara Guillaume de Marbeke, a man widely educated, knowledgeable in Latin and Greek philosophy, translated into Latin the works of Aristotle, Hippocrat, Archimedes and Ibed. These translations, apparently, had an impact on the formation of philosophical views of the Foma Aquinas. A noticeable phenomenon in the culture of the Latin Empire was the work of troubadurov, many of which were the participants of the fourth crusade. So, Konon de Betuun reached the zenith of his glory in Constantinople.

The Poders of the Empire were noble knights Robert de Blois, Gogo de Saint-Canton, Count Jean de Brien and the less significant type of Gogo de Brezhil. For the culture of Late Byzantium, the ideological community of Byzantine erudites with Italian scientists, writers, poets, which had an impact on the formation of early typal humanism. It was the beautiful world of Greco-Roman antiquity by Western humanists that was destined to discover Western humanists, to acquaint them with classical ancient literature, with the genuine philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. It should be noted that the concept of "Byzantine humanism" means that cultural, spiritual and intelligent psychological and aesthetic complex, which is characteristic of the worldview of the ERDITE layer of the XIV - XV centuries, and which according to its signs can be considered an analogue of Italian humanism. The widest knowledge of such famous Byzantine philosophers, theologians, philologists, ritizers, like George Gemist Plong, Dmitry Kidonis, Manuel Christor, Vissarion Nicesky, etc., caused the infinite admiration of Italian humanists, many of whom became students and followers of Byzantine scientists. Simultaneously with the development of humanistic ideas in Late Byzantium, an extraordinary take-off of mystizism occurs. As if all the temporarily attached forces of spiritualism and mysticism, asceticism and abnormality from life were now consolidated in Isihasty movement, in the teachings of Grigory Palama and began an offensive on the ideals of the Renaissance. In the atmosphere of hopelessness generated by the deadly military danger, the feudal gravestones and the defeat of folk movements, in particular the uprisings of Zelotov, among the Byzantine clergy and monasticity, the conviction that salvation from earthly misfortunes can be found only in the world of passive contemplation, complete calm - ishih, self-serving Ecstasy, allegedly giving a mystical merger with deity and illuminated by divine light. Supported by the dominant church and feudal to know, the teachings of Isicast won the broad masses of the empire with mystical ideas. In late Byzantium, superstition flourished. Public troubles gave rise to thoughts about the approach of the end of the world. Even in the environment of educated people, fortune telling, predictions, and sometimes magic were common.

Sometimes the sorcerers were pursued in order to find out the goal of their secret actions against any person. Once suspected in the worst of the old woman in order to bring the goal of her witchcraft actions, nude put into the bag with cats, and cats through the clod of the Roshovnik, so that they stuffed with claws into the body of the old woman. Frections were cases of applying magic in clergy circles, although it was pursued by the Church. Summing up the development of the Byzantine culture in the XI - XII centuries, we can mark some important new features. Of course, the culture of the Byzantine Empire at that time still remained medieval, traditional, largely canonical. But in the russian life of society, despite its canonism and the unification of aesthetic values, the sprouts of new prerenimal trends have been made, which have found further development in the Byzantine art of the paleologists. They affect not only and not so much on returning interest in antiquity, which in Byzantium never died, but in the emergence of Rationalism sprouts and freedomiff, in strengthening the struggle of various public groups in the field of culture, in the growth of social discontent.

Conclusion

byzantine Empire Culture Aesthetics

According to the work carried out, the following conclusions can be drawn in the development of the culture of the Byzantine Empire:

1) In the first period, the main features of the Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, they should be attributed to the fact that the Byzantine culture was opened to other cultural influences,

received from the outside. But gradually in the early period, they were synthesized by the main, leading Greek-Roman culture.

The culture of early Byzantium was urban culture. The major cities of the Empire, and first of all Konstantinople, were not only cities of crafts and trade, but also the foci of the highest culture and education;

2) In the second period, Byzantium has reached the highest power and the highest point of development of culture. In public development and in the evolution of the Culture of Byzantium, conflicting trends are obvious due to its midrange between East and West;

3) In the third stage, the culture of the Byzantine Empire remained medieval, traditional, largely canonical. But in the russian life of society, despite its canonism and the unification of aesthetic values, the sprouts of new prerenimal trends are made. They affect not only and not so much on returning interest in antiquity, which in Byzantium never died, but in the emergence of Rationalism sprouts and freedomiff, in strengthening the struggle of various public groups in the field of culture, in the growth of social discontent. So, the main objective of this abstract was achieved: we studied the culture of the Byzantine Empire at different stages of development, and also disclosed its specificity and feature.

List of used literature

1) Culture of Byzantium. Ed. Sakharov L.D. M., 2000.

2) Wikipedia. Free Encyclopedia: http://ru.wikipedia.org

3) Udaltsova Z.V. Byzantine culture. M., 1988.

4) Roginsky Ya.y. Formation of culture in the world. M. "Science", 2002.

5) encyclopedic Dictionary. 2001.

6) Culture of Byzantium in three volumes ed. "Nauka", Moscow 1984, 1989.

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Features of the development of the artistic culture of Byzantium, in which all sorts of eastern motives were awakened, respect for the official side of life and the opposition to it, the preservation of the traditions of antiquity and the creation of the artistic traditions of Christianity.

Byzantine culture was of great importance in the formation of European civilization. Its role was far behind the pre-affairs of the millennial chronological framework of the existence of the empire itself. Almost half of Christians of the whole world in spiritual relationship are also directly by the direct heirs of East Christian, Byzantine Culture.

General features of Byzantine culture.Byzantine Kul-Tourway as a whole is inherent in a number of pronounced features compared to the culture of other European countries in the Middle Ages. 1) in IV-HP centuries. It was distinguished significantly higher levels. 2) Antique heritage in the Byzantine culture, although in the adaptive and recycled form, found a manifestation in all areas, starting with philosophy and ending with applied art and household routine. 3) in the organic alloy of the Greek-Latin culture with the traditions of local cultures (EGI-Petskaya, Syrian, Armenian, Georgian, etc.), the creative genius of the Greek people prevailed, especially in her language - from the VII century. She finally became the Greople. 4) its specificity consisted in its openness of the influence of the cultures of the peoples who lived not only within the empire, but also out of here - from here, its distinct oriental flavor. 5) The bright feature of the Culture of Byzantium is its tradition, adherence to canon, hiding under ancient times the struggle of ideas, criteria, styles. 6) was different, finally, Byzantine culture and greater typological one-relatives compared to Western European.

In the culture of Byzantium, as in no other in medieval Ev-Rope, developed developed cultural traditions Very different arms of them nations. This was due to the centuries-old impact of such factors as: strong centralized power, the unity of the management system, the principles of taxation and the recruitment of the army, the rights and proceedings, religion and the organization of the Church, the State (Greek) language; Continentituity of urban life with direct cultural continuity between generations; Comparative intensity of communication and information exchange between the center and the provinces, thanks to the state so far and the extensive network of maritime communications; Finally, the gigantic focus of Culture - Constantinople, the main idea of \u200b\u200bthe source, criteria and principles, modes, and tastes, and tastes for the entire empire of the source of new ideas, criteria and priests.

Earnevian culture.From IV to the middle of the VII century. (i.e. in the earlynessization period) the formation of the foundations of the Vi-Zaninsky culture as a holistic system of manifestations of the society of society was committed. A fundamentally new culture was born, permeated by Christian Mirosenoz. In acute ideological struggle, Christian monotheism came to replace the pagan politeism. The commitment to Christianity became an ideological imperative - prerequisite The very existence of an individual as a full member of society and the subject of the empire.

Until the end of the existence of the Empire, the Byzantine society co-kept the ancient traditions of respect for knowledge. East Christ-Ansky Theologian VIII century. John Damascus belongs to Raspatic and today, saying: "Learning is light, and unacceptable - darkness." In the cities of the Empire, knowledge of the diplomas (reading and account) was usual not only in the higher, but also in the middle and lower pre-static layers of the population. The sharp drop in the level of education and the co-deficiency of the number of competent people took place only in the "dark century", i.e. In the VII-VIII centuries, in the conditions of the universal crisis and the invasion of the barbarians. Tracting to school stimulated the persistent demand of the state on the educated people needed to replenish the state of numerous officials. Already in the IX century, in the conditions of strengthening the authority, a new rise in education began.

To the AK and in other countries of the Middle Ages, Byzantium did not know the universal education system, although the network of school institutions was much wider. School organization, disciplines and learning procedures were inherited from anti-alone. Schools were divided into two steps: primary and middle. In the elementary children from 6-9 years old, the cycle of sciences, denoted by tradition as "trivium" (once he included grammar, rito-rica and dialectic). In fact, the circle of disciplines in different schools was different and studied in them only the origins of knowledge. There was a general training for two to three years to read, writing, account, the basics of Christian creed and elements of secular and Bib Lais history. Instead of Homer, they now read the "Psalter" - the main textbook of Scholarov. Schools were both paid - private and free - monastic, church, child-friendly, affordable even for the poor. In the circle disciplines of the middle stage school - "quadrivium" - included arithmetic, geometry, music (harmony) and astronomy. But here reigned a variety in choosing sciences. At a higher level, grammar, rhetoric and logic (dialectic) were studied. The entire totality of sciences were determined as philosophy - purely theoretical knowledge. Practical attributed ethics, politics, jurisprudence. Knowing the same physical or chemical properties of substances, acquired by experienced, was considered not to science and craft. With stupid Christianity, the science was also divided into a sacred and light-bitch ("external"), and the first one was announced by Mrs and the second servant. How much was the electoral approach to the legacy of the ancient literature, her study was given a lot of strength. According to the status of a perfect literary (written) language, only a attic dialect was considered, a little understandable majesty population. It was his, however, studied, on it, fashionable people spoke to each other and created their sophisticates. There is a gap between the language of culture and the live speech of the people. Attempts to overcome it began at the end of the XII century, but he was completely eliminated in a new time.

The average, paid school, created usually in particular the teachers themselves (grammar), was rare even in large cities. Foreign formation mainly in the capital. The concept of "Higher Education" by the concept of "Higher Education", Vizan-Tytsy did not know, although among them there were a lot of highly educated people. They reached the highest levels of knowledge sometimes, but more often through training on a private agreement at well-known erudites (ritizers, philosophers, lawyers). In IV-VI centuries. Athens, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza, Alec-Sandria were famous for their scientists - the largest foci of higher education, ancient knowledge centers. However, in the second half of the VI-VII century. They were in decline. In V c. The richest library in Alec Sandria burned down and was killed by fanatical monks a famous scientist - Mathematics of Ipathia. Special Edikt, Justinian I, closed the School of Neo-Platonikov philosophers in Athens, whipped in the empire, is still one of its act by linguing under the late Tandyant Epo-Hoy. Constantinople, and from the XII century, was the only major seafer of the scholarship. Also, thessalonika and trapesund, and only in the XIII-XV centuries. Many other cities.

Philosophy in that epoch was inseparable from theology: both were almost synonyms. Developing the Christian Bo-Goslovsk Doctrine, capable of standing in ideological struggle with paganism, other cults and herds, the Byzantine God-Words were forced to rely on the logic and idealistic teachings of antiquity. Like Western Scholasti, the Byzantine Capeliefs paid special attention to the logic of Aristotle, but they studied and commented on the works not only Aristotle, and a wide range of antiquity philosophers. In the creation of the Christian cement, as the system, the fundamental contribution was made to the IV century. "Three Great Cappadocycot", Canon Erudite-Erudite Vasily Vel-Kiy (Caesia), Gregory Theologian (Naziazine) and Grigory Nissky, as well as the Patriarch of Constantinople in 398-404. John Zlatoust. In addition to purely theological concepts, they will consider a lot of important and understood by the problems of Christian anthropo-logic, psychology, ethics, which touched the main responsibility for the social world for state power and wealthy circles of society.

The development of theological subtleties was combined with the primitivization of positive ancient knowledge of the universe and the surrounding material world: nothing had to contradict the Holy Scripture. A giant cultural coup, the coat-triumph of Christianity, seized almost all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the basis of which was from the right religious idea. An example of replacing the antique Cosmo-Gonony the biblical myth about the creation and device of the Universe is the "Christian Topography" of the Jump of Indicoplov (Greek. "Floating to India"). Informing the truthful data on the ways of co-communication, about the peoples they associated (and in this data, diplomats and merchants of the empire always needed), about the flora and fauna of East Africa, Arabia and India, Kosma writes about the Earth as a flat fetragon, surrounded by water And covered by the Tver-smoke heavenly arch.

Contrary to the principled distrust of the knowledge of the ancients about matter, the needs agriculture, crafts, irrigation, ship-building, architecture, fortification, medicine, etc. Dictated the need to store and develop knowledge mined by experience. Byzantines not only studied the works of Galen and Hippocrat -Ini, they improved diagnosis, surgery, antiseptics, rashed a set of medicines of plant origin. There was a state of affairs in the production of glass, mosaic smalts, paints, ceramics, enamels, in metallurgy, jewelry - in all this, the skill of the Byzantines found international at knowing. But such knowledge was not considered scientific, because they were eager to the sphere of landed worries not about the spiritual, but about the material.

Theological works were the predominant genre of literature in all ages the history of the empire. Comparison with him, however, in public significance was historiography, continuing as any other genre of the Byzantine literary creativity of the Bo-ghay traditions of ancient historical history. Historians of the Empire almost until its end deliberately imitated their great pre-marks (especially Herodotus, Plutarch, Xenophon and Fukidide). The peak of the historiography of the Earnevianizanist era was the works of the proof of Caesarea, Menandra, a traitor, Agaphia Miriney. They all owned an attic speech and all wrote their works in the VI century, on the eve of the wreck of a high culture of Impe-Rii. In essence, their creativity does not so much "opens up" the average-century-old Byzantine historiography, as "closes" the lateant. The most outstanding among them was the procopies of the Caesarian, close to the court holder of high posts and Ti-Tulov, an eyewitness of the most important events. He created a wide historical panorama - "The history of Wars of Justinian with Persians, Wang Dalai and Gotami." The position of the author, who was standing on the verge of two eras, was reflected at his work: glorifying the acts of Justinian I in his "history" and in the treatise "On the buildings" as Christianity and the wise ruler, proof in his "secret history" (for loved ones and Friends from the senatorial opposition) created an image of a cruel and immoral self-responsible for all the misfortunes of the Empire.

The actual medieval genre of historical narrative - chronography - arose at the end of the III - early IV century. And gradually began to move on the fore. The founder of the genre was the church writer Evsessia Caesarian. Characteristic at the signs of the chronicles created by him, like most later, were: the beginning of the presentation "from the creation of the world" (from Adam) with a brief overview of the history of the ancient (referred to the Bible) of the Naro-Dov, starting with Haldeev and ending with the Romans, and only Then - regardless of detailed, weather, the story about the chronologically close to the author of the events, of which the most purely subjectively were selected and the most important were recorded. "The World Chronicle" did not have a Lo-gickest ending: she fell into the year, to whom her pre-drove this author or his successor. It was assumed that each such chronicle may continue to appear in the subsequent chronicles. Author's individuality, analyticality were alien to Chronista: without any criticity of various sources, including legends and historical anecdotes, were used equal to the degree of confidence. All kinds of wonders, the phenomena of the streets, the incidents of the private life of the heroes and large battles, state coups and folk disrespects described as the fact that are equivalent by their importance. The authors of chronographs were usually representatives of the clergy, in particular - monks. According to its origin, the world and the circle of communication they were close to the lower and middle social layers, their language and style were understandable to the people, and the chronicles of steel with the time of the Pop Laryna. They were transferred to their neighbors and long-distance neighbors, such as the Chronicle of John Malal (VI century).

The Christian worldview gradually mastered the other genres of the Byzantine culture, which can be defined as actually artistic, but to the end of the VI century. And in this area, antique traditions prevailed. They permeated and love lyrics and epigrams, and speeches about certain events of public and private life, and erotic narrations, and always common in the empire epistolography as a special kind of literary creativity, which was far beyond the framework of member written information. The new, religious genre that pretended at the same time was church poetry, or anthemia. A huge role in the establishment of high-art of the Breedry of the Breeding Spring (Choral Piece) was played in the first half of the VI century. Roman Sladkopevts - poet, singer, musician. His hymns (he created them about 1000) was distinguished by a perfect form, a high slope of feelings, a conquering melody, close by rhythm to a folk song.

Bright flavor of late antiquity is characteristic of the IV-VI centuries. And for the most important areas of Byzantine art (painting, architecture, shallow plastics). New, Christian ideological content was in the first pores in the old forms. It was most clearly manifested in mosaic, usually large-scale, images. Mosaics of the Bolshoi Imperial Palace are with great skill and realism of the scene from rural life, made in a multicolor gamut of the mosaic of the Church-Rotonda in the Fessonika - the gallery of the saints of the saints with clearly vital individual characteristics, like the mosaic of the Church of San Vitaly in Ravenna with famous images of Justinian And theodora. However, in other mosaics of the same temple and the same time, Christian aesthetics are already clearly reflected: the appearance of a particular person reproduced, and the religious idea-key idea has reproduced. The same evolution of Proven and other genres of Byzantine painting: wall-mounted Ros-pisi (fresco) and book miniature. However, it is especially fully and expressively spiritual symbolism embodied in a specially created in the early Byzantium for this purpose the painting genre is an icon. It has become the most characteristic and original kind of Eastern Necristian Fine Art. The icon paints owned and the honed technique of the masters of antiquity, and the art of the transfer of a deep psychologist inherent in the lateant portrait, but they rethought him from the standpoint of the new functional role of the image and new aesthetic principles, claimed to the Primate of the Spirit above the matter: Icon captured not so much the appearance One saint, how many virtues inherent in him.

Byzantine architects also perfectly learned the experience of their ancient predecessors. In major cities, they were preserved from antiquity and water pipes, and their, and stadiums, although the medieval principle gradually treated: on the central square, the main temple and the administration buildings were located, and residential neighborhoods ran away from the center to Peri Feria, erected usually without any Plan, using landscape features. The preserved dynamine masterpieces, created in Early Byzantium, testify to the deep knowledge of the architects in mathematics and geometry, in physical and chemical properties Materials, in the laws of Gar Monia and acoustics. The most outstanding architectural memory of the early era is the Temple of the Divine Wisdom (St. Sofia) in Constantinople. It was built in 532-537. Isidore from the Mileta and Anthimi from Thrall. The grandi-gang of the temple, covered by the light of the forty windows at the base of the giant dome, like the sky of the crowned building, marble of numerous columns, gold mosaics, paints of frescoes - everything was at a sort of symbolizing the power and unity of the God-love Christian Empire.

The culture of early Byzantium was at a crossroads: she is an out-of-shaft old, lateant appearance, losing a lot of past youthful values. She penetrated with new spiritual ideals, using old and gained new forms. But the process was far from completion - the synthesis of local diverse and different traditions has not yet led to the birth of a single, homogeneous system.

Culture of the central period of the history of the Empire.In the "dark" century, a deep crisis with special strength was reflected in the cultural life of society. It is from the VII-VIII centuries. Preserved non-measurable less sources than from the previous ones. The circle of even the elementarily literate people was sharply narrowed, the overall level of Kul-tours fell in the medium of the highest nobility. However, the education is highly appreciated in the Byzantine society in all the epochs. Already in the middle of the VIII century. Literacy was again the property of wide layers of Goro Jean, including women.

A real anthemistry, including ancient, appeared to the Christian theologian living in Baghdad, John Damascus, "Source Source", the first Grand-LAK experience of his systematization. The iconoborous disputes and struggle with Hergy have stimulated the thirst for education and encouraged them to promote the development of the school. The highest school at the court existed already in the first half of the 9th century, and in the middle of this century a high level of learning was famous for the Magnish school, named by one of the largest halls of the Imperial Palace. He taught in it and the enlightener of Slavs Kirill-Konstantin, on the nicknamed philosopher. Patriarch Fotius, one of the most enlightened people of that time played a special role in the or-sanitation of education, enhance its level and revive interest in the ancient knowledge. He argued the idea of \u200b\u200bthe value of positive (secular) knowledge, regardless of its source, including the knowledge of the ancients about nature and matter, was harmful to harmful even taken earlier by the Church of Superstition (including the cosmogonia of the Joint of Indicoplov). The Patriarchar Feto (858-867, 877-886), which coincided with the Board of Vasily I Make-Donanin, the founder of the new dynasty, date the beginning of the "Make-Don Renaissance" of sciences and arts in the Empire.

In the second half of the IX century. The prerequisites of the new heyday of the Byzantine culture, which took up to the capture of Konstantinople, Crusaders in 1204, the control of the church over the spiritual life of the Company was preserved during this period, he even tightened (for example, with Alexei I and Manuile I Comnins), but Overall was not so comprehensive and hard. Almost undivided dedication to the Ra-Renovarian confession was maintained, but she was now combined, even in the hierarch environment, respectfully for the ancient heritage and with the glove-to-Kim studying. Under the influence of the ideals of the antiquity and cult of the power of Vasilev, who needed glorification not only by Cercovye, but also by worldly means, the relative independence acquired secular directions in literature and art. Among the Byzantine intellectuals, there were already supporters of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe sphericality of the Earth and theories about the geocentric or helioitor-tricing structure of the Universe. In 1045, a new Higher School was opened in Constantinople, conventionally called the University, with two faculties (philosophical and legal), where the authoritative erudites of the time were taught, and at the end of the XI century. - and "Patriarch Academy" to prepare the highest ie Rarhov church. In the X-XII centuries. Almost all the emperors, regardless of the level of their own education, considered their duty to promote the expansion of the school network and help them material-but. At a higher level, the culture of the Empire is the breadth of the spread of its higher forms, according to the plot, genre and style diversity - rose in the XII century, in the era of the so-called "Comninovsky Renaissance". The intensity of the spiritual life of Byzantium led to the transformation of its culture during the X-XII centuries. In a single, typologically homogeneous system.

In the first century of the central period, the main focus of society was again riveted to the problems of theology. There was a need for a comprehensive systematization of the Christian creed. This task was performed by John Damaskin in the labor "The exact presentation of the Orthodox faith", always used auto-ritheta by theologians. Following the principle of "I do not like anything, the author led to a slender system to the teachings of the Church, eliminating the contradictions occurring there and resolutely ending on the side of the iconistors.

In the philosophical searches of the X-XI centuries. Two ten denstrations configit. The first was associated with the enthusiasm part of the Byzantine erudites by Plato's ideas, which allowed to doubt the advantages of the blind faith in front of the possibilities of the enlightened once-ma. Poet John Mauropod, Mikhail Pwell Teacher, a scientist, writer, the historian of the second half of the XI century, prayed in the verses of God to admit to the paradiment of Plato's pagan, who simply could not know the faith of Christ. Pwell contemporaries-theologians cried for elements of rationalism in his "logic", unacceptable, in their opinion, for "Ipat (ie, chapter) of philosophers", how he was appointed emperor at a metropolitan university. The student of the same Pwell John Ial, the successor of the teacher as Ipat, for persistence in Platoniz-Me, was deprived of his position and convicted by the church. The second is the State-Party - among the Thinkers-Theological Trend expressing, in approval of the idea of \u200b\u200bcultivating in virtues in the spirit of Christian ethics. The most original among mystricians was Simeon New Theologian (949-1022), according to whom the teaching is capable of a prayer and spiritual cleansing to draw upon the life of real unity with God. For the spiritual life of the XI-XII centuries. Characterized by the periodical appearance of the theologian polemical treatments, directed against the "sorrow" and the wrongness, as a rule, Latinan, Armenian monophysi-TOV and Jews. There was a custom that prompted each of the species church figures to create at least one treatise on this topic.

Large successes, the culture of Byzantium in the central period was also noted in the field of natural sciences (in mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, biology, etc.). By the middle of the VII century. The invention relates "Greek fire". Contemporary Fothia, one of the fundamental algebra, Lev Mathematician invented the Light Telegraph, allowed to find out in the capital about the invasion of Arabs on the Eastern Fronts in just a few hours, as well as mechanisms - automatic machines, forced during the receptions, the throne of the emperor suddenly get up, statues Lviv - beat with tails and lying, metal birds - flutter and twitter. At this time and such genres of the "arts" of purely practical purpose, as a cartography, preparation of "guidebooks" for travelers on land. With Konstantin VII, a graceport labor (913-959), a grand work was made to systematize knowledge gained since the times of antiquity. More than 50 kind of "encyclopedia" and treatises for agronomy, medicine, in-institution, diplomacy, etc. were drawn up. The emperor itself is pissed (partial or complete) authorship of such works as "about the fams", "on the management of the empire", "On the ceremonies of the Circassian Court".

Within three and a half centuries (the second half of the VII-X century), Byzantine historiography was in the stage of gradual revival. A prominent place at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. It belongs to the historical phrases of the Patriarch Nikifora and Feofan confessor, and in the X century. - Lion Daacon, in detail of the freshest war of Prince Svyatoslav in the Balkans. The genuine heyday of the historiography of the VI-ZANTY is falling in the XI-XII centuries, when more than half-torrative dozens of outstanding historical writings were created. One of the brightest among them, a talented narrative, written in the late XI century, is the "chronography" of Mikhail Pwell, which represents the genre of a historic biography. With brilliant craftsmanship and merciless cynicism, Pwell reveals all sub-nage personal life and state activities of 12 vengeans, rewarding everyone due for decent acts and with interest - for all unworthy (eight of them he knew personally, being their favorite). Alexiad Anna Comnina, daughter Alec Say I, is also a historical biography, but only one personality is her father, whose activity she posthumously glorifies, demonstrating high education, loyalty to atticism and literary skills (Anna imitates Fukidida). At the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. As a direct continuation of "Aleksiada" co-building his work prominent Sanovnik Nikita Honiatra. His "History" is an extensive story about the fate of the empire from 1118 to 1206 (OSO-Benno-detailed - about the fall of the capital in 1204). Labor penetrates with humanistic motifs, the author is inherent in a clear civilian position, it is deeply experiencing events whose witness was himself. Reflecting on the past and personally experienced, Nikita honestly seeks the causes of the collapse of the Great Empire.

Byzantine literature of the central period, too, survived the time of slow rebirth at the end of the VII-VIII century. And the last was then flourished under the emperors of the Macedonian and Komni-Novskiy dynasties. For the end of the VII-VIII century. It is characteristic of the feasible domination in the literature of the genre of the Saint (Agiography). Along with the stories about the wonders and martyles of the saints, in life, bright paintings of everyday life, working conditions and the life of the people, and sometimes historical events were reflected. The position in the literature began to change from the beginning of the IX century. To the first third of his third, the creativity of the Poets of Casia, who was bichned by ignoramus and self-fool among the power of the property. From the middle of the IX century. In the circles, nobody spread novels in prose and verses on the themes of ancient mythology and history. Responding to widespread interest in the works of the tree, Patriarch Fothy made up a collection of reviews about 280 essays of Christian and antique authors with detailed extracts from them. The collection was called "Mirovivlim" ("Description of the Studies of Books"). Many lost later works are known only to extract Fothia. Most popular with Byzantines and their neighbors used created in the IX-X centuries. Based on the people's songs on the fight against Arabs Epos about Digeneis Acryite, the gloring feats of the young warrior and his love for the beautiful girl. The "poem" is imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bpatriotism, the consciousness of human dignity, independence, the values \u200b\u200bof the simple joy of life. "Poem" was translated into ancient Russian language. Rolling-melting in the XII century. and a fastened genre with an acutely pronounced and socially oriented criticism of the authorities and existing orders. An important feature of the Epos Condition created on the basis of the Epos-la literature in the availability of its language is a wide circle of the population of the Empire.

The ascent of the high degree of perfection also marked the IX-XII centuries. Samples of Icons VII - the first half of the IX century. A little preserved: they were destroyed by ICO-Noborstsev. The skill of the icon painters of the X-XII centuries. Still under-readed by the requirements of religious aesthetics: it was in this field of art that the church control was especially strict. Canon, Reta, sample, deep spiritualism and stylization have become the norm, including a set of plots, image galleries, the location of the figures, a combination of colors and blueberries. All this has combined, however, with the ultimate expressiveness embodied in the icon of religion ideas. The same principles were focused on the book miniature, and the fresco painting, which was widely represented in Cer-kvaach, which at that time found a new form: a cross-domed temple with a rich external and internal decor came to replace the Basilica. The picturesque canon dominated the Komninovsky era, but the number of plots increased significantly, the techniculus improved, attention increased to the individuality of the characteristics. One of the features of the work of the Byzantine painters was an increased emotionality in the perception of them by the way and in the embodiment of the plan: the icon painter performed in the role of non-pointed for a weak person before God, begging him about the softening of punishment for human sins.

At the end of the XI-XII century, despite the deepening discrepancies between the Constantinople and Roman churches and more and more hour clashes with the military forces of the West, its cultural exchange with the empire became more intense. It became more active sanctioned and unauthorized by the authorities and Cercé, the borrowing of non-ideological forms of Western Kul Tours and Arts, especially in the field of applied art, in Muzka, clothes, everyday life routine. These influences did not change at all, however, the essence of the culture of the Empire. Along with its characteristic high values \u200b\u200bof universal importance, such features were still inherent, such as the non-acceptance of new, traditionalism, external pomp, commitment to strict ritualism, arrogance and didactics, were born by consciousness of its superiority over the culture of Narotov The rest of the world.

Lateurizant culture.After the embarrassment of the Empire in 1204, the development of culture in each of her "fragments" was performed at least until 1261, isolated, without living constant connections. Despite this, an important circumstance, she remained, as was before, the Byzantine basic, century-old values \u200b\u200band traditions remained in all the mainly uncovered. Nepo-secondary continuity with the culture of Constantinople was particularly characteristic of the cultural development of the Nicene Impeal. In the Nichesky period, it was mainly prepared by the "Palestogovsky Revival", which began 20 years after the celebrity of the capital (1261). It was in the Nician period that a new feature appeared in the spiritual appearance of Byzantines - awareness of belonging to the Greek Ethnicity, and in addition to the "Obhecher", its special properties and its special place among other peoples.

In the territories captured by the crusaders, the pace of development of the local culture slowed down (her elite emigrated, and the remains did not take funds to maintain the former level of education and art). Nevertheless, under foreign dominion, the common cultural appearance and the inner world of Nasya and the Vizantine, East Christian. The manifestations of the synthesis of local and western cultures here were more distinct, but here it took place on the basis of the most advantage of the most Byzantine culture, even in the circles of the highest nobility of the Waters: "Latinians" wrapped out. Latin Romania played the role of an intermediary in the transmission to the west of the essays of the ancient and Vi-Zanti authors. In turn, a knightly romance arose under the influence of the Latin West in Byzantium, penetrated the pointh of the motifs of the curuiest lyrics.

Cultural lift of the XIV-XV centuries. It happened against the background of the rapid sunset of the empire as a powerful state exhausted from the inner misfortunes and shocks of external enemies. In the VII century Similar SI-Tuitsa led to a temporary cultural decline, now, on the contrary, - to the activation of cultural life. The reason for this difference was primarily at a higher level, in the majority of the stability of the Culture of Byzantium by the beginning of the XIII century. This time, the drama of the overall situation caused a wider resonance in society. Contrary to the indestructible ideas of the Byzantines about the "God'sBractedness" of the Empire, who claimed the championship in a civilized world, she recently, in fresh memory, was once robeward and humiliated by the Crusaders and now again, after a non-conscious fortification, lost their strength, and in recent century, lowered at all Before the position of Vassal Ioverts-Turk. All this glowed the emotional sphere, crossed the cultural croici feverishly looking for a way out, live in constant intellectual voltage. Active ties with representatives of Western culture, especially with Italian humanists, gave new food for reflection. In the VII century The empire was lonely before the hordes of the barbarians, now it was part of the Christian world. Contrary to bustless concerns to the Phared, in the minds of many prominent Byzantines, hope was developed, it was a real alternative: either buying the help of permanent powers by the price of confessional concessions to the papacy, or find a compromise with Osmans, not coming to faith.

The culture of the era of Paleologists testifies to the development of qualitatively new processes in its Lon and on the lift of the progress rate in various spheres of the spiritual life of society. The new state-lo: in greater freedom of judgment on faith and criticism of orthodox Christianity, in more tolerance for Inover-Tsam, in a more rationalistic understanding of nature phenomena, in increasing attention to the inner world of man, in respect of his personality, in Recognizing the virtue of not only the benefit of Ceven and humility, but also decency - as the norms of behavior and ministry to Fatherland, as moral debt. Such is the whole position of the part of the Byzantine intellectuals, which were carriers of humanistic trends. They owned outstanding scientists Theodore Metohit, Manuel Chrysist, George Gemist Plong, Vissarion Nicene. It's closely related to the workers of the Italian Renaissance, they did not but become in a sub-linous sense by the ideologists of humanism. Soil for this socio-cultural flow was not yet prepared by the process of historical development of the empire. The most radical ideas expressed PLONFON, namely: the rejection of private ownership of land, state leadership by production activity, return to reformed antique paganism as religion of genuine Greeks, the elimination of monasteries. The position of the "Humanists", especially their thesis that church concessions papacy is a fully acceptable fee for the salvation of the empire, whether there is an acute criticism that has received a socio-political knowledge. Their irreconcilable opponents turned out to be much more numerous circles and among educated secular nobility and especially among the clergy.

These were Isihasts - followers of the most popular in the empire during the last century of its existence of mystical learning. The foundations of this teaching were laid many centuries ago in the monastic medium, especially Simeon, the new theologian. It remained for a long time the theoretical base of the Isty Mobility for the few circles of ascetic monastics. In the middle of the XIV century, in conditions of instability and acute anxiety for the fate of the empire and faith, it was thoroughly developed by Gregory Palama, the Archbishop of the Fessonaloniki (approx. 1297-1359). Palama taught that salvation is possible through a lifetime merger with a boutine by individual religious mobility and ex-pelvis, through an in-depth thoughtful prayer in the state of Absu-luminous physical peace ("Isyhii") and a complete deregistration against material thoughts. Against the theory of Palama, the monk Varlaam, who defended the primacy of the mind over the faith, writers and theologies of Nikifor Grigor and Gri-Gori Akindin were made. At the disputes around Isichams were involved at the courtyards and the emperor himself. In 1351, the Church Cathedral in the capital, with the active intervention of the Emperor-UzurPator John VI Cantakuzina (1347-1354), not only subjected to the condemnation of Palamas opponents, but also recognized his teaching canonically flawless. Isicham quickly became the dominant ideological doctrine in the empire and soon spread in other Orthodox countries, survived for several centuries its theorient.

The public role of Ishchasm cannot be assessed unequivocally. It is unlikely that Isicham in the political situation of the last century of Im-Peria turned out to be a timely, caused by the doctrine, capable of giving an ideological impulse to mobilize the society for the period of mortal danger. Isihasti, strengthening the believers in a selfless devotion to Orthodoxy, was preaching whether the way to save conscious removal from the pressing problems of life, while energetic and decisive actions were needed and a sober assessment of the real state of affairs. (It is known that many Byzantines pinned all hopes for God, until the last hour of struggle expecting a supernatural miracle). Otherwise, the cultural and ideological role of Ikshasm is estimated. He argued a highly humane moral code, developed a system of spiritual self-improvement of believers, created a slender aesthetic concept, concentrated on an injury of a human spiritual world, influenced the development of the visual arts, strengthening their traditional loyalty to "classicism". Isicham did not gain the undivided domination in Libyanis: he was opposed by a new course, which heavily to the real-sample. For this flow, dynamism is characterized, expression, emo-rationality of the drawing, like new letters of writing - a fresh game of lighting, colorful palette, multidimensionality of space and com-position. A bright example of the mosaic of the Byzantine fine art rising to the new heights of the Byzantine art is the mosaic of the Khora near Constantinople (now Kahrie-Jami mosque), which gives the presentation and the skill of the architects of Late Byzantium.

Tracting ideas of "Humanists" as heretism, and the tendency to Ulya as a betrayal of Orthodoxy, Isihasti, with the support of the highest power, won the victory, having deprived of "humanists" of any influence on social life and pushing many of them to emigration to the West (mainly in Italy), What, however, part of them was already ready.

The rich historiography of HS-HJ BB. Developed the tradition of the genre of the History of the Comninovsky Time. Among the historians, John Cantakuzine, who wrote his work after renunciation from the throne as a quiet, intelligent apology of the acts of his person, who was a US versa) and in the appearance of the first Horde Osmans on Earth Earth (they were his Allies in the fight against legitimate impellers). Historian XV century Duka described the tragic days of siege, assault and fall of Constantinople in May 1453. Disappointing the historical and ethnographic work of Laonics Halkokondila. Its essay is a series of novel; In the field of view of the Av-Torah not only the Turks, but almost all countries and the peoples of Europe. According to the nature of the material of the work of Halkokondil, although it is also on the archaeization of the style, sometimes approaches the artistic prose, which in this era was distinguished by a large variety of genres.

Ottoman conquest struck by the Byzantine culture on non-valid takeoff. But the sunset of the empire did not mean the disappearance of its culture. First, it remained the foundation for the further development of the culture of the Greeks, the human consciousness of their own identity and ethnocultural originality. Secondly, its traditions persisted in all Orthodox countries (Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Georgia), with all the vicissitudes of their destinies. Thirdly, the heritage of this culture continued to develop in the only Orthodox country, which remained out of power of Muslims - in Moscow Rus. Fourth, finally, the spiritual values \u200b\u200bof the Kul-tours of Byzantium were an integral part of the world culture, enriching both the Renaissance culture and the culture of Europe in the tse-scrap in the following periods of its history.

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Home\u003e Abstract\u003e Culture and Art

Ministry of Education of RB.

Brest State Technical University

Department of Philosophy and Cultural Science

Abstract for cultural studies

“Culture of Byzantium "

Performed:

StudentI. Course

ME-23 groups

Solovy S.G.

Checkandla:

Cleanova T.L.

Brest 2006.

Plan:

Introduction

The originality of Byzantine culture.

Antique heritage and Byzantine culture. Artistic traditions of the Ellinized Eastern Provinces of the Empire.

Byzantine art as a reflection of the religious and philosophical views of the medieval society.

Conclusion

Introduction

The Byzantine State undertakes as a result of separating the eastern part of the Roman Empire at the end of the IV century. AD It existed over a thousand years, up to the defeat in 1453 of its capital of Constantinople during the Turkish invasion. The beginning of the Byzantine Empire is considered to be 395, when the Emperor Feodosius I divided the Roman state into two parts - Eastern and Western. Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Empire (so was renamed the Old Town of Byzantiums in 330).

The development of the Byzantine state, distinguished by identity, passed several stages. The first stage (IV is the middle of the VII century) was a period of decomposition of a slave-ownership, the origin in the depths of the Byzantine society of elements of early refortional relations. The state of this period was a centralized monarchy with a developed military-bureaucratic apparatus, but with some limitations of the power of the emperor. The second stage (from the end VII to the end of the XII century) was a period of formation of feudal orders. At this time, the state acquires the finished features of a peculiar form of an unlimited monarchy other than the despotic monarchies of the East and the monarchies of the feudal West. The imperial power in Byzantium reaches the highest level. Finally, in the third stage (XIII-XV centuries), there is a deepening of the political crisis of the Byzantine society caused by the strengthening of the process of its feudalization under the growing conditions of the Turkish military aggression. This period is characterized by a sharp weakening of the Byzantine state and its actual decay in the XIII-XIV centuries, which led it in the XV century. To death.

The geographical location of Byzantium, spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes I stretched my power and on the field of Africa, made this empire as if the link between East and the West. A constant split between the Eastern Western World, crossing the Asian and European influences (with the predominance of some of the epochs, then others) became the historical Dettle of Byzantium. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imposed a print on social life, statehood, religious philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its historical way, in many respects other than the fate of the countries, both east and west, which determined the features of its culture.

Byzantium has had a significant impact on the political development of the peoples of South and Eastern Europe, as well as the Transcaucasus. For a long time she was a keeper and conductor of the state-legal heritage of antiquity. The perception of the feudal states of Bulgaria, Serbia, Kievan Rus and Georgia of the vast cultural heritage of the Byzantine state has contributed to their progressive development. The development process of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had era of the rise and decline, periods of the celebration of progressive ideas and the gloomy years of the domination of the reaction. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times.

All of the above makes it possible to notice that the culture of Byzantium is an interesting cultural and historical type with very specific features. It is about them that will be discussed in this work.

1. Equality of Byzantine culture.

Features of the Culture of Byzantium are largely due to the fact that Byzantium has not experienced a root broom political systemwho survived Western Europe, and the influence of barbarians was less significant here. Byzantine culture was under the influence of Roman, Greek and eastern (Hellenistic) traditions. It took shape (like the medieval Western European) as Christian: In the most important areas of culture, all the most significant ideas about the world, and often everyone means, the thought was enjoyed in the images of Christian mythology, in the traditional phraseology, acknowledged from the Holy Scriptures and the essays of the Church's fathers. Based on the Christian verbation (which considered the earthly existence of a person as a short episode on the threshold of eternal life, which put forward a preparation for death as the main life task of man, which was considered as the beginning of life in eternity), the Byzantine society determined the ethical values \u200b\u200bremaining, however, abstract ideals, And not leadership in practical activity: neglect of earth solders, labor assembly is mainly as the means of discipline and self-esteem, and not as the process of creation and creativity (since earthly goods are brewing and insignificant). Humility and piety, the feeling of its own sinfulness and asceticism was considered by Byzantine as the highest Christian values; They were largely defined and an artistic ideal. Traditionalism, in general, inherent in the Christian worldview, turned out to be particularly strong in Byzantium (where the state itself was interpreted as the immediate continuation of the Roman Empire and where the Greek language of the Hellenistic era remained mainly by the language of written culture). Hence the leaping in front of the book authority. The Bible and to a certain extent, the ancient classics were considered as a set of necessary knowledge. The source of knowledge was proclaimed tradition, and not the experience, because the tradition, according to the Byzantine ideas, was torn to the essence, while the experience acquainted only with the surface phenomena of the earthly world.

The experiment and scientific observation were extremely rare in Byzantium, the credibility criterion was undeveloped, and many legendary news were perceived as genuine. A new, unshaven book authority, was considered as the Bunlet. For the Byzantine culture, the system is characterized by the systematization in the absence of interest in the analytical consideration of phenomena [which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and in Byzantium, it was aggravated by the influence of Greek classical philosophy (especially Aristotle) \u200b\u200bwith its classification trend] and the desire for the autopsy "true" (mystical) meaning phenomena [the resulting based on Christ. opposition to the divine (hidden) earthly, affordable direct perception]; Pythagorean-Neoplaton traditions have further strengthened this trend. Byzantine, based on the Christian worldview, recognized the presence of the Divine (in their representation of objective) truth, respectively, clearly divided the phenomena on good and bad, why all the existing ones have received an ethical evaluation on them. From the possession of (illusory), the truth flowed out intolerance to any dissent, which was interpreted as evasion from the good path as heresy.

The culture of Byzantium, introduced an immeasurable contribution to the development of European culture, to her rightly belongs to a special, outstanding place in the history of world culture. In the artistic work of Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which was distinguished by the noble grace of forms, shaped by the vision of thought, the refinement of aesthetic thinking, the depth of philosophical thought. According to expressiveness and deep spirituality of Byzantium, many centuries stood ahead of all countries of medieval Europe. The direct heiress of the Greek-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium has always remained a center for a kind of brilliant culture. If you try to separate the Byzantine culture from the culture of Europe, the front and Middle East, the following factors will be the most important:

In Byzantium there was a language community (the main language was Greek);

In Byzantium, there was a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

In Byzantium, with all the multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks.

The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management.

This, of course, does not exclude that the Byzantine culture, which affects many neighboring countries, herself was culturally influenced by both the tribes and peoples who inhabited it and their neighboring states. During his millennial existence, Byzantium came across powerful external cultural influences, which came from countries that were close to it, from Iran, Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia, and more than the Latin West and Ancient Rus. On the other hand, Byzantium had to join a variety of cultural contacts with peoples, which were standing for several or at a much lower stage of development (the Byzantines called them "barbarians"). The development process of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had an era of lifting and decline, periods of the celebration of progressive ideas and the gloomy years of the domination of the reactionary forces. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times. An inexhaustible source of culture was folk creativity. Under the cover of traditions and stereotypes, there was a new, creative principle for themselves.

All the millennial history of Byzantium can be divided into three periods

Mid-IV is the first half of the VII centuries. - The period of decomposition of the slave-ownership and the formation of a medieval society.

Mid VII - early XIII centuries. - The emergence and development of feudalism in Byzantium.

XII-mid-XV centuries. - The last period characterized by the further development of feudalism and the beginning of its decomposition.

2. Antique heritage and Byzantine culture. Artistic traditions of the Ellinized Eastern Provinces of the Empire.

In the history of the European, and the whole world culture of the Byzantine civilization belongs to a special place, it is characterized by solemn pomp, inner nobility, the grace of the shape and the depth of thought. During the entire millennial existence, the Byzantine Empire, which has absorbed the legacy of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was a center for a kind and truly brilliant culture. Up to XIII century. Byzantium in terms of the level of development of education, on the tensions of the spiritual life and the colorful sparkling of the subject forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all countries of medieval Europe. Actually, Byzantine art begins approximately from the VII century, but the ancient tradition in Byzantium has never been interrupted, and the most firmly associated with the traditions of the past - Constantinople ("Second Rome").

In the field of painting, this process is associated with a mosaic technique that flourished in the IV-VI centuries. Up to XII century. According to Byzantine mosaica, this process of an Hellenistic extinction can be traced: monumentality is lost, swells color, the drawing becomes more geometric, schematic. K xiv in. Mosaic replaces the fresco, and then the old icon. But the extinction of the Hellenistic tradition is accompanied by a positive process of influencing the art of overseas provinces. In the East, new linear rhythmic elements were developed. VII century - This is the end of the lateant period in the culture of Byzantium and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Arabs become the owners of the East, Slavs - Balkans, Langobard - Italy. The "bottoms" of society assimilate the art of its eastern monks, masses running from Arabs.

The wrestling of the emperor with the church, the gap between the fasteners of the imperial and peasant-blessing art in the VIII-IX centuries. Takes the form of iconoclap. The icons prohibited by the emperor as pagan widows were distributed by monks like shrines. This struggle ends in the IX century. The victory of iconing together with the strengthening of the Syrian and Palestinian influence in art. With Vasily I (836-886), a new, canonical type of architecture and new iconography is formed. New temples are created with painting, in form and content of a significant step forward.

The second half of the IX century. - This is the Earniewicantine Phase, which coincides with the Doroman form in the West. But unlike the West, Byzantium follows the path of compromises between the imperial tradition and oriental forms, the stylistic unity is achieved only in the X-XII centuries. In the Materialist Russian period, which coincided with Romance in the West. The stank painting of Byzantium is closely related to the Eastern and dolninist portrait in the technique of Enkautics (wax paints, affected by the basis). The exact date and time of transition to the temperature of Levukas is unknown. In the XII century Stank painting becomes along with a miniature leading painting type. In the XII century Masterpieces of Byzantine Icon Pouring were created. The idea of \u200b\u200bits high level gives the icon of Vladimir's Mother of God, now stored in the Tretyakov Gallery. This is an unusually humane image of the mother, the prefiguration of the future tragic destiny of his son, which is achieved by pie and extremely precisely found funds, among which the major role is played by a thin spiritualized line and soft muted flavor. Vladimir Icon is one of the masterpieces of world painting.

From the X-XI centuries. In the Byzantine art, lush decorativeness dominates. Solemn monumentalism is increasingly connected with a complicated symbolism. The victory of the generalized spiritualist principle in aesthetics leads to the dissolution of the diversity of the real world in the characters. In painting and architecture, strict, rational symmetry, calm, solemn equilibrium of lines and movements of human figures on frescoes and mosaics of temples begins to dominate. Stylized architectural assembly, fantastic background landscapes are becoming increasingly abstract and often replaced with gold or purple planes. The artist's work acquires a faceless character, it is fidgeted by tradition and church authority, and the gusts of individual creative quests of the master are subordinate to the warming action of the canon.

In the church architecture of that time - Basilica as a form of a cultural building in the form of an extended three-fruined construction is taking their own age. Her place is occupied by the Cross-dome temple, who had in terms of the shape of a cross with equal branches and a dome in the center. The formation of the crusade of the dome architecture was a genuine and complex process. Its beginning can be attributed to the VI century, when the masterpiece of dome architecture was created - Sofia Konstantinople, and the completion of the main century. In the X-XII centuries. Cross-domed architecture began to develop both in the Byzantium itself, and in neighboring countries, but this type of cultural architecture was only a common can, on the basis of which it developed various options. The appearance of cross-domed architecture was associated with a change in public relations and aesthetic ideas in the Empire.

New trends appeared in changing the social content of architecture. First of all, there is a reduction in the scale of the temple. Grand temples for the people go back. The distribution is obtained by relatively small churches intended for the city district, rural parish, monastery or castle. At the same time, the temple grows in height: the proportions of the building are changed, the vertical becomes the prevailing idea, the aspiration will swell gives a new emotional and aesthetic filling of religious architecture. If earlier the main role in the cult archity played internally space, the dome looked from the inside and symbolized the universe, then in the XI-XII centuries. Exterior of the temple is becoming increasingly important. The facade of the building is now included in the overall architectural design, in a single composition. Instead of closed and closed facades and walls, new architectural forms appear: the facades of the members are decorated, decorated with light columns and semi-columns, the number of narrow and long window openings is growing, asymmetry appears for the first time. The onset decor of the building becomes a self-sustaining element of architecture, increasing his artistic expressiveness.

The architecture of the exterior boldly and with a great taste is introduced color and decorative decorations. Facing facing of the facades with multi-colored stones, brick porridge, decorative alternation of red brick layers (dlinges) and white solution, bright tiles in the form of friezes. Color creates a new artistic look of temples. Finally, this new style has developed in the XI century, but reached its apogee in the XII century. Within two centuries, the detailed development of the main features of the new style occurs. Signing the external and internal appearance of the temple becomes tangible, airiness, ease, elegance of architectural proportions, the columns in the temple are made thinner, the dome drum is lengthened - it becomes easy, slim, with a variety of vertical membership, with windows that enhance the lighting effect.

In the inner space of the temple, the desire to achieve large unity is traced. There is a strict centricity and an increase in the bribing space, the beauty of the temple is now largely determined by his aspiration to swell, in heaven. In the external design of the temple, sometimes a pyramidal rhythm appears, the openwork and the color of the facades, black and white contrasts. Architectural forms of churches of the second half of the XI-XII century. It becomes sophisticated, perfect, cheerful, their colorful openwork and lightly contrast sharply with a deaf, harsh, ascetic outdoor appearance of the preceding time buildings. Former closure and extension go back, the temple should now be contemplate not only from the inside, but also outside.

Nevertheless, on the large territory of the Empire, old and new forms of cult architecture have coexisted for a long time. In some areas, one or other architectural trends received the predominance. In Greece, the traditions of ancient and early andizantic architecture were manifested with a special force. In the XI century Here are the monumental temples that retained a lot from more early architectureBut also carrying new style elements. To their number belongs to the famous monuments of architecture and painting: the Cathedral of the monastery of Hosios-Lucas in Fokhide and the Monastery of Daphnia near Athens. The Cathedral of the Khosios-Lucas monastery was erected by Emperor Vasily II in the glorification of his military victories and repeatedly completed.

The Cathedral of the Khosios-Lucas Monastery, this is a large five-foot temple, an elongated shape from the west to the East, visible from afar because of his huge dome, which rests on a low drum. The temple of the Daphni Monastery near Athens (end XI) is less than the Cathedral of the Hosios-Lucas, but perhaps this is exactly what makes it speciality and harmony. It is much more than its predecessor, asked to swell, less monumental and cumbersome. The proportions of the temple of Daphnia are distinguished by persistence and plasticity. The outdoor view of the building is strict and expressive. Its decor is not overloaded with details, but at the same time sufficiently needed. Keeping ancient architectural foundations, this temple demonstrates at the same time strengthening the effect of a new style in Byzantine architecture.

On the secular architecture of the X-XII centuries. You can learn mainly from literary monuments and descriptions of contemporaries. During this period, the construction and decoration of the imperial palaces in Constantinople was continuously accounted for. The complex of the Grand Palace, spreading on the shore of the Marmara Sea, was constantly growing, was separated by colored marbles and mosaics, which gave him an increasing parade and festibility. In x in. In this complex, the Palace of Wooleon was rebuilt, called the name from the bull and lion's sculptural group decorated. All solemn techniques and ceremonies of the X - the first half of the XI century. Passed in the complex of buildings of the Grand Palace.

When climbing, the imperial yard left the big palace, the old center of the Byzantine power, the symbol of its power and power. For political reasons, Vasilev's residence was postponed to the newly rebuilt Vlashensky Palace, located on the northwestern outskirts of the capital. Alexey I Comnne erected the palace here next to the temple of the Music Mother of God. It was here that he took the crusading leaders and showed the treasures of the imperial treasury. Emperor Manuel I Comnin in 1156 expanded this palace, building a luxurious hall, decorated with mosaics, on which his campaigns were depicted and mentioned the names of the 300 cities conquered. Crusaders, capturing in 1204 the Vlashensky Palace, was surprised by his luxurious making and beauty of the front hall.

The palaces of aristocrats and rich houses of citizens and provincial nobility were erected throughout the empire. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe Palace of Provincial Splitter gives us a description of the estate of Digenis Arkit in the poem about his exploits. The palace was a rectangular structure of a duck stone and was decorated with columns, the roof was sparkled with a mosaic, and the floors were laid out with a polished stone. Descriptions of secular architecture are also found in the Byzantine novels of the XII century., And in historical epistolary literature. Until the XIII century. Byzantine architecture can be considered one of the most developed and perfect in the medieval world. She had an impact on the wide range of countries - Bulgaria, Serbia, Rus and even to some extent to the Romanesque West. The ancient Russian state is obliged to Byzantia the first outstanding architectural achievements.

To x in. In the Byzantine Fine Arts, in particular in painting, the iconographic canon is finalized - strict rules for the image of all scenes of religious content and saints, as well as a steady canon in the person's image. The aesthetics of contemplative peace, solemn peacekeeping, unearthly orderliness attracted the creation of sustainable and unchanged iconography. The iconographic types and plots almost did not change during the centuries. The deep spiritualism of the aesthetic views of the Byzantine aristocratic society did not lead, however, the art of Byzantium is finally in the world of naked abstraction. Unlike the Muslim East, where the primacy of the spiritual principle above the carnival led to the domination in the visual art of geometrism and ornamental forms, which pushed the image of a person, in the art of Byzantium, the person still remained in the center of artistic creativity. After the victory over the iconoborets in Byzantium, the ideas of anthropomorphism again approved. In art, again turned to Ellinism, but with the deep processing of its traditions in order to increase the spirituality of artistic creativity. If the pagan world challenged bodily beauty in man, the Byzantine art glorified his spiritual greatness and ascetic purity.

In the wall painting, in mosaics and icons and even in the book miniature, the head as a concentration of spiritual life becomes the dominant of the human figure, the body is shy, under the flowing folds of the robes, the linear rhythm replaces sensual expression. In the image of a human face, spirituality, inner greatness, depth of spiritual experiences are taken out to the fore. Huge eyes with ecstatic expanded pupils, high forehead, thin, deprived lips sensitivity - these are characteristic features of the portrait in the Byzantine art of the classic medieval. From the cult, artistic creativity almost completely disappears the sculpture as an art that glorifying the bodily, and not spiritual beauty. It is replaced by a flat relief and painting (mosaic, fresco, icon). From now on, the artist must depict not only the body, but also a soul, not only an appearance, but also the internal spiritual life of his hero. In this, by the way, to say, an important difference between the Byzantine art from Western European, where the sculptural images of Christ, Madonn, the saints acquired the widest distribution.

The impression of passive contemplation, the closedness of artistic images is achieved as a result of the strict frontality of images and a special color gamma. Instead of ancient impressionism with his finest nuunting of gentle halftone, in Byzantium with x in. Durable local paints imposed on decorative planes, with a predominance of purple, purple, blue, olive green and white tones. The image of a person, as it should finally frozen in majestic impassivity, is deprived of dynamism, personifies the state of contemplative rest. An unsurpassed sample of the monumental art of Byzantium of the middle of the IX century. are mosaics Sofia Constantinople. This neoclassical style masterpiece was restored in the apse of the cathedral on the site of the mosaic destroyed by the iconoclasts, as evidenced by the preserved inscription.

Majestic, sitting in a calm statuer posture. A huge figure of Mary with a baby in his arms - the embodiment of sublime spirituality in combination with sensual charm. The beautiful face of Mary breathes up soft femininity and wise calm. The Archangel Gabriel standing nearby is striking with Nicene Angels, he is the embodiment of earthly and at the same time heavenly beauty, Hellenistic sensualism in conjunction with Byzantine Spiritualism. Mosaics are made by talented masters, differ in sophisticated artistry in conjunction with the aristocratic manner of execution. According to the famous connoisseur of the Byzantine painting V. N. Lazarev, there are something "Vrubel". In his opinion, the mosaic of Sofia Konstantinople is the highest embodiment of the Byzantine genius.

Other mosaics of Sofia (IX - the beginning of the XI century) are somewhat inferior by artistic skill of this masterpiece, but interesting in their plot. These are two scenes that have not only artistic, but also historical importance. At one of them, located in a lunite on the entrance from Norma to the Temple, the emperor Lev VI (996-912), who stuck knees before the standing Christ, is located on which samples of Mary and Angel are located in the medallions. The meaning of the scene is the worship of the power of the earth before the power of heaven. On another mosaic began the XI century. In the southern lobby of the temple of St. Sofia Before the Mother of God who is sitting on the throne, the emperor Konstantin I, which brings the model of the city of Konstantinople, and the emperor Justinian, who brings Madonne the model of the Cathedral of St. Sofia; Byzantine emperors ask for intercession from the Mother of God for the Great Grad and its main church. Both mosaics - the works of high metropolitan art - attract the colorful wealth, the correctness of proportions, the portrait similarity of the emperors and the luxury of their clothes.

The second half of the XI century. And the whole XII century. - Classical era in the history of Byzantine art, its highest flourishing. A generalized spiritualist style gets completeness, unity of form and iconography, a clear expression of aesthetic ideals. At the same time, new features appear in it. The stylized line is made fine, abstract, the contours of the figures become light, air, movements look more natural, in the color of the gamma, along with dense, defined paints close to enamels, there are overflow tones that inform images of irronyality, radiance; Color and light merges in general harmony. Masterpiece of monumental painting the second half of the XI century. There are wonderful mosaic and frescoes already mentioned by the monastery of Daphnia near Athens. They constitute a single amazing ensemble, subordinate to the strict iconographic canon.

The composition of all paintings is deeply thought out: the dome depicts a Pantokrator of the Grozny and the Mighty Lord of the world, and at Apsida - Sitting the Mother of God with a baby surrounded by angels and saints. All location of the figures is built with a subtle understanding of the laws of the composition. The living rhythm of the figures will imbued with joyful maidos. The pattern of mosaics and frescoes is distinguished by perfection, to achieve greater expressiveness of persons, a volumetric modeling is used, the elongated proportions give the image of the grace and harmony, the movements of the figures are natural and forced. It strikes the wealth of clean, juicy and at the same time gentle colors, which in conjunction with gold and silver is an exquisite color palette. I must say, the murals of the Monastery of Daphnia resemble the frescoes of Rafael.

Another masterpiece of the Byzantine classic style are relatively recently open mosaics of the South Gallery of the Church of St. Sofia in Constantinople (XII century) is, first of all, magnificent Jesus. In the center there is a Christ - majestic, wise, stern; For one side, Maria is standing with an unusually beautiful, gentle, sorrowful face, John the Baptist, his powerful figure breathes by tragic strength and tension. The spiritualized persons performed by sublime spirituality retain the volume and relief. The impression is enhanced by the colorful modeling, the richness of color shades, almost watercolor sophistication of the color. The correct sense of proportions commensurate parts of the figures rising to the traditions of Hellenism are connected to the expression and the severity of the Byzantine neoclassicism.

On the same South Gallery of Sofia Konstantinople, another mosaic ensemble was opened, this time a secular character, with portraits of emperors and empress. At one of the mosaics, the emperor Konstantin IX monomakh (1042-1054) and his wife Empress Zoya (died in 1050) both in the strict frontal poses, closed in luxurious front-clothes, with the crowns on their heads standing on the sides of the crown on the throne of Christ. In the hands of Vasiles, the bag with gold is a gift for the content of the church, in the hands of Vasilissa, the scroll is probably a graduate certificate confirming the privileges of the temple. Near the wall of Emperor John Komnet (1118-1143), his wife Irina, the daughter of the Hungarian King Ladislava, and their son Alexey. They stand on the sides of Our Lady with a baby in their arms, in the same frontal poses, with all the regalia of the imperial power and with gifts in their hands.

In the XI-XII centuries. There is a rise in the art of icon painting. From this period, several beautiful samples of the Byzantine icons are preserved, mainly the metropolitan school of painting. Originally in the plot, and by the execution of Constantinople Icon XI century. From the meeting of the monastery of St. Catherine on Sinai. She depicts the ascent to the skies of the monarchs on the stairs of moral self-improvement and spiritual exploits: the early monarchs the unclean force pulls into hell, which attaches the icon of well-known naivety and fantasticity, despite the realistic features in the images of figures and persons, on their correct proportions, ascending to the Hellenistic traditions . From the XII century The masterpiece of Byzantine Icon Pouring is preserved - Icon of Vladimir Mother of God (Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery). The other Byzantine icon of the XII century is impressive. - Grigory Wonderworker - stored in the Hermitage of St. Petersburg. The harsh, ascetic face of Grigory courageously and calmly, his look deep and focused.

It is impossible to list in this section all icon-painted monuments of Byzantia that era. We only note that when comments, due to permanent wars and the strengthening of the military, the popularity of the Saints - defenders and patrons of the military estate was strongly risen. On mosaics, frescoes, icons, enamels, images from ivory and small hiking icons from Steatitis are increasingly appearing Images of Saint-Warriors: Dmitry Solunsky, Feodorus Stratilate ("Commander"), Fedor Tiron ("Recompretation") and especially St. George. The iconographic images of these characters are militarized. Iconographic type St. George undergoes evolution. If in the X-XI centuries. It is depicted in the form of a walking war with a spear in his right hand, based on the left on the shield, then in the XII century. Gets the spread of the horse's horse without a dragon or sometimes affecting the snake. The image of George Warrior has gained great popularity in the countries of Southeast and Eastern Europe, especially in Russia.

Amazing brilliance and perfection reaches Constantinople book miniature in XI and especially in the XII century. Thin, calligraphically clear ornament, warm, yellowish parchment background, brown ink, abundance of gold in decoration, soft color gamut miniatures, classic proportions of figures, ease and ease of their poses - All this creates a charming impression. Of course, the same shifts in the style and interpretation of the image took place in the book miniature, as in monumental painting. In the XII century The miniatures of the bookcases become particularly colorful, their decor is complemented by the introduction of architectural landscapes, complex ornamental, the movement of figures become more impressive and expressive, the golden background is widely used.

The XI century was a period of extraordinary take-off of a book illustration. The imperial scriptorium in Constantinople became the center of creating truly magnificent codes. Here, by order of emperors, real masterpieces of book miniatures were created. These include the manuscript of "words" of John of Zlatoust, made for the emperor Nikiphor Wotaniat (1078-1081). At one of the miniature, Nikifor Wotanian himself was depicted in a magnificent imperial closure, the Eastern features appear in his face, which speaks of portrait similarity, captured by the artist. In the painting of this code, the influence of the art of the East is felt. The manuscript is kept in the Paris National Library. Another pearl of the art of the metropolitan masters of miniaturists is dating from 1072. The manuscript of the New Testament, created for Emperor Mikhail II Duki (library of Moscow University). The tiny code of the code, decorated with exquisite painting, elegant screensavers and initials, is an authentic masterpiece of book art. Coloring miniatures of both manuscripts is characterized by soft and warm, light tones prevail, drawing thin and dynamic. In a row with these masterpieces, you can put a psalm XI century. From the Public Library in St. Petersburg, created between 1074-1081. For one of the Byzantine emperors. The jewelry thoroughness of ornament, the softness and tenderness of the color is distinguished by these miniatures from among others, also highly artistic Codes of the XI century.

From the XII century A fairly large number of monuments of Byzantine miniatures are also preserved, now they are stored in the libraries of many European countries, including in Russia. Among them there is a manuscript of the essays of the monk Yakov (XII century) with beautiful miniatures. Multifigure miniature "Ascension of Christ" is especially impressive. The ascension scene is deployed in a colonnade of a huge Byzantine temple, crowned with five domes and a decisive mosaic and a different stone. Figures of Mary and Apostles are depicted in livingly tormented poses, the figure of Christ is placed in a medallion, worn in heaven by the angels. High artistic qualities and exceptional skill of the creators of these monuments put forward them for a prominent place among the works of the Middle Ages book miniature. Decent parallels they find in Europe, perhaps only in the French manuscripts of the XIII-XIV centuries.

The X-XII century - the period of the new lift of the Byzantine monumental art and architecture - were also marked by flourishing applied art: jewelry, threads on bone and stone, production of products made of glass, ceramics and artistic fabrics. Artistic creativity in Byzantium was subordinated to a unified system of peaceopony, philosophical and religious worldview, a common aesthetic principles. Therefore, all kinds of arts were closely interconnected by a single system of artistic values, the community of plots, stylistic and composite principles. Book miniatures and applied arts also obeyed these general laws, although in varying degrees. Their evolution was in line with the qualitative changes of the entire artistic system of the Byzantine society.

In Byzantium, unless in the medieval world, an organic artistic synthesis of architecture, painting, sculptures, applied art was observed. Applied art in Byzantium, in addition to practical functions, there was often sacral, representative, symbolic purpose. From here the highest aesthetic requirements for the art of small forms. Church utensils, imperial regalia, clothing of church hierarchs and courtestinous nobility, religious and lars of emperors and empress, luxurious jewelry, which were not only Vasilissa and court ladies, but also emperors, top officials, clergy - all these decorations often became an inaccessible sample For artists of other countries.

In the X-XII centuries. Constantinople continued to be the center of the production of precious articles of applied art. The products of the metropolitan masters were famous for the refined taste and technical perfection. Luxury items decorated the Palaces of Vasilevs, mansions and estates of nobility, interiors of temples. At this time, the growth of provincial cities begins, where they are not only imitated by the metropolitan samples, but also create their artistic values \u200b\u200b(Dessalonika, Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). The works of Byzantine applied art are highly appreciated far beyond the empire. The highest level of development has reached the Byzantine Thorieving - the manufacture of art products made of gold, silver, bronze and other metals. The objects of the cult of reliquaries, the lamps, panicadyl, forged with the reliefs of the gate of temples, folds with saints, salaries icons and books and many types of church utensils were true works of art. Huge distribution had metal products in everyday life of emperors and the highest Byzantine aristocracy. Musical instruments, lars, diverse dishes, dishes, bowls, gold and silver cups accounted for the necessary part of the court life of the Empire and the Imperial Palace.

Dawn of applied art in the X-XII centuries. It was associated with the celebration of external shine, ceremonial, paradanity, the cult of the emperor. The magnificity of ceremonies, sophisticated court etiquette, festive magnificence, shine and elegance of court life, ritual of processions, cultural ritual - those who happened in the atmosphere of solemnity and gloss, undoubtedly heated the special love of the Byzantine aristocracy to products from precious materials, stones, brilliant utensils, zttotkin clothing and Luxurious decoration of palaces and temples.

The wonderful works of applied art were at the same time the instrument of politics and diplomacy - distribution of the awards, gifts of temples and monasteries, bribing of the rulers of foreign countries and their ambassadors, contributed to the spread of precious works of the art of Byzantine masters far beyond the borders of the Empire. An excellent example of the Byzantine Tori.Eutetics is the Reliquarian "Angel's Phenomenon Wife" (XI-XII centuries) (Paris, Saint-Chapel). Sophisticated ornamental motifs in conjunction with Christian plots penetrate the decoration of the salary of icons and liturgical books. Rooting patterns of deciduous ornament, palmettes, grape vines are often similar to the pattern of screensavers of illuminated manuscripts. In secular objects - bowls, dishes, cups - adjacent biblical and antique motifs, scenes of myths and hunting, rich ornament.

Of course, mass production from metal for the wide layers of the population of the Byzantine state was also common. Along with mosaics, trade and jewelry, the most vivid manifestations of the Byzantine artistic genius were partitioned enamels on gold. The sophisticated linear stylization, polychromia, brilliant gold background, cleanliness and brightness of local colors, the nobility of colorful combinations, spirituality of images - these are characteristic signs of Byzantine enamels, relating to them with the best works of monumental painting and book miniature. There was a lot of masterpieces of high art of Byzantine enamers. One of the first places among them belongs to the famous Pala d'Oro in the scenario of the Cathedral of St. Brand in Venice. Pala d'Oro is a pressed image consisting of 83 enamel gold plates of Byzantine origin. In the center there is an image of Christ, on other enamels there are reproduction of biblical plots, in particular the portrait of Vasilissa Irina, already familiar to the mosaic of Sofia Konstantinople. This is the famous work at different times, but the best enamels belong to the XII century. No less fame uses two crowns of the Hungarian kings donated to them by Byzantine emperors. The first of these is the gift of Emperor Konstantin IX Monomach by the Hungarian king Andrew I (1047-1061). The crown consists of seven golden with the femoral enamel of the sash, they are depicted by Konstantin IX monoms, standing between his wife's wife and her sister Feodoroy. The shape of the crown coincides with the image of the crown on the heads of the Empress Zoya and Irina on the mosaics of Constantinople Sophia. The figures of dancers and the ornament from stylized birds and plants, located on the parties to the Byzantine rulers, testifies to the sustainable impact of Arab art on the Byzantine artistic art of the XI-XII centuries. Another crown was created in several techniques. Initially, it was a diadem with the image of Emperor Mikhail II Duki - the gift of the wife of the Hungarian king Gaza - the Byzantine process of Sinaden. In the second half of the XII century. With the Hungarian King, White III, the diadem was redone to the crown with spherical riding. In the Byzantine gold plates, Christ Pantokrator, Emperor Mikhail II of the Duoka, his son Konstantin and the Hungarian King of Heiza I (1074-1077). Both crowns symbolize an important political doctrine - the Byzantine emperor appears here as a suzenne of the Hungarian kings.

The applied art of Byzantium, who gave the world as many beautiful masterpieces, reflected tastes, aesthetic ideas and interests of various social sections of the Byzantine society. For its basis, it was more closely associated with folk culture, it was often fed by images and ideas generated by social psychology and wide circles of the empire population. In place at that, it simultaneously obeyed the general ideological plants and art canons that dominate the Byzantine society. Craftsmen, of course, should be considered with the tastes of noble customers, the Imperial Palace, Church. And yet the applied art boldly moved away from thematic and stylistic stamps, drawing new impulses from the folk public consciousness, from the creativity of the masses.

The last flourishing of the Byzantine art falls on the XIII-XIV centuries, the time of the board of the Paleologists dynasty. The expressiveness of the images appear, attempts to transfer the space (Mosaics of the Church Cachrie-Jami in Constantinople). But new artistic trends could not develop and strengthen: there was a defeat of Constantinople first with the Crusaders, and then - the Turks. The best masters of Byzantine art left the country. So, the work of Faofan Greek could develop in full force only in Russia.

The late period of Byzantine art coincided with the Gothic and in time, and in the style. The art of Byzantium ceases to exist with the death of Byzantine statehood, its artistic traditions remain to live, which had a huge impact on the artistic culture of the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, Southern Italy, Venice, Armenia, Georgia. The fruitful role was played by Byzantium in the development of artistic culture of ancient Russia. The art of Byzantium was fully appreciated only at the beginning of the XIX century.

3. Visant art as a reflection of the religious and philosophical views of the medieval society.

The representations of the Byzantines about the world went rooted in the ancient culture and in national cultures of various nationswho inhabited the empire (Syrians, Greeks, Jews, Armenians). However, these submissions were not less determined by Christianity - religion dominated in the empire.
Unlike pagans, Christians believed that the world was created by God with a certain famous goal. It can not understand the meaning of God's deeds. But after God in the image of Jesus Christ came to Earth and suffered for people, the path to Him opened for everyone who believed in Christ and followed his teachings. Living in a sinful, earthly, transient world, a Christian is striving to spiritual, the eternal world.
The earthly world was represented by the Byzantine Dark Cave, and everyone living in it - prisoners, cured chains of sin and everyday non-vitality.
The material, visible to the eye, became no longer as interesting as before, and those Byzantine Christians who were engaged in artistic creativity. Why are those who are convinced of the inferiority of this world, strive for the similarity in the image of a particular human face or fix a random, momentary bending of a real, but Benham? A new challenge in front of the Christian artist got up - to display validity invisible eye.
But how to display invisible? Where to find it? Christians believed that, just as the waters of our earthly world carry the "drops of paradise rivers" (Ephraim Sirin, IV century), so the entire local world of the higher, spiritual principle. It is difficult to see: it is only available to a man with a pure heart.

Christian artists, architects and sculptors believed that they should see spiritual essences in objects in people, in animals - and reproduce these entities in any materials. Such a task has become the most important in the work of Byzantine masters. To solve it, it took a new artistic language, the most purified from the entire momentum, changeable, concrete and carnal. From painting began to leave the black and white modeling of volumes, from the sculpture - portrait. Sculpture, too closely connected to the flesh, departs in the Byzantine art to the background. The fear of falling into idolatry gradually led to an almost complete disappearance of the sculptural image of a human figure.
Apparently, the formation of a new artistic language was not easy and caused disputes. One of the apologists of early Christianity, TERTULLYAN (approximately 160-220) was confident that modern art develops fruitfully: "Consider me with a liar, if antiquity is not outdated in all kinds of art, as new works of art appear every day, - - And added that modern masters - "invincible rivals of the masters of the past" (AD NAT. II. 16).
Following the apostle Paul, Christians believed that in this life we \u200b\u200b"see as if through the dim glass, gdessing" (I Cor. 13: 12). But it is possible to understand the hidden meaning, since information about the higher truths "transferred to us in the characters", which detect the incomprehensible and at the same time "retain, drag divine truths from the uninitiated" (pseudo-donisions, presumably VI century).
Many Christian theologians worked on the symbolic interpretation of the texts of the Bible. Live creatures, items, the phenomena of nature and the events mentioned in the sacred texts, they were interpreted as symbols and signs. Animals that are not allowed in food, became the symbols of pagans, the bride - the church, the three angels who came to Abraham and Sarah, - a single God in three faces. With the help of these characters, it was possible to talk about spiritual, true, invisible.
Just like the theologians, artists, architects, sculptors and their customers began to understand the symbol as that tool that will help them fulfill the main task: to break through the visible world and exalt the human spirit to the truth. Now the artists sought to portray not just objects, plants, animals, but the essences shown through them.
Pelican became a symbol of chadolubia, as it was believed that he feeds the young internship. Deer, tracing snake, seemed to the symbol of combating sin, Lily - the symbol of Our Lady. Architects put four columns not only to support archs, but to symbolically depict four evangelists.
Symbolic understanding of the world influenced musicians. Eight of the lads, which built church Byzantine music, also received allegorical interpretation. Four of them were associated with a cross, and the other two pairs were interpreted as the signs of the dual - the God-human - nature of Christ.
In painting, symbolic steel even poses of the characters depicted. The figure with the adopted head and the cheek now meant sorrow. The Golden Background should have hinting at the visible presence of God, and Red - symbolize the salvation of mankind, for which Jesus shed her blood. At the same time, each symbol was multi-valued, possessed several meanings. For example, the dome could symbolize the sky, and God.
About the tasks that His contemporary put in front of the Christian artist, and what was looking for a medieval viewer in the work of art, we can learn from the text of those who lived in the IV century. Historian Eusevia: "In the picture, britched high above the entrance to the Palace of Vasilev, he [Emperor Konstantin, the customer of the work] depicted ... Above his own slave sign, and under his feet - aspiring in the abyss of the Dragon, under whose appearance there was a hostile and hostile beast ... for In Scripture ... Call this beast Dragon ... Vasilev wanted to show everyone that under his feet of him and his descendants this dragon is struck by an arrow in the womb ...

This, of course, indicates the secret enemy of the human race, who presented the power of saving signs to the abyss of the power of saving sign, who was over his head ... Having inscribed these images, the king with the help of painting presented the right imitation of truth "
(Life of Constantine. III. 3).
From this description it is clear that the viewer of that era paid attention not so much on how the sovereign is depicted, how much does the image mean.
The text of Eusevia allows us to see another feature of the work of medieval Christian masters. The historian calls the Creator's picture of the emperor Konstantin, and the artist is only his assistant. This is directly related to the conviction that the main thing in the artistic work is its internal, identified in the symbols, meaning. In this case, the Creator can be considered the one who has invested, asked this meaning.
Following such logic, the Byzantines were often called the creators of temples, sculptures, paintings not artists, architects and sculptors, and customers. The names of the real masters almost always remain unknown. Also on the musical manuscripts of that time instead of the author's name, they often wrote: "Ancient chanting", or just - "ancient". The reference to antiquity made them in the eyes of medieval people more valuable.
However, the anonymity of medieval works of art is another, no less important cause. Christians were convinced that all the good in this world is from God. Ideally, the hand of the artist or the musician sends the Divine Damnie. Masters are only assistants, the younger co-authors of the Lord.
In order for creativity as accurately as possible an idea, the artist was supposed to reassign himself to God, refuse that it prevents the manifestation of the highest good. Therefore, medieval masters often fasted during work, and taken for her with prayer. They hoped that this would help them to be cleaned of sin, to fulfill the spirit of wisdom, then "there is a virtuous board under a virtuous brush" (Christopher Mitlensky, XI century) and the artist will be able to embody in his works of Heavenproof.

Christian art was didactic. The most important task and justification of its existence was that it was trained by people, helped them to come to God. To fulfill this problem, it was necessary that signs and images used by the master were read and recognized by the audience. Therefore, the masters should have been used by the Ovechritisian Foundation for Symbols and Images.
Byzantine artist did not see anything wrong in working on the descriptions drawn up before it or repeat the work created before. The sample was older, and in the eyes of a medieval person it meant that he is more or more accurate reflects the truth. As a result, the canons - samples and rules for which the Masters had to work in Byzantium.
The artist knew the plot in advance, composition and poses of characters, color of clothes and background. Gradually, the compositions were polished, became more and more perfect, but the images themselves were often converted into dry, abstract formulas.
The formation of canons occurred in each genre of Byzantine art. However, this did not obstruct the expression of complex Christian ideas. The best masters were able to inspire images with authentic feelings and create perfect works.
For the millennium, during which the Byzantine Empire existed, in the framework of a single artistic style, new directions arose. Their appearance was associated with changes in the life of the state and society, with a change in the globility of the Byzantines, with the processes occurring in religious consciousness.

Of course, the secular works of art were created in Byzantium. However, those who were associated with religion have always remained leading species and genres. It is icon, temple architecture, painting and sculpture, registration of liturgical books and the manufacture of iconic objects.
For its centuries-old history, Byzantium has repeatedly changed its borders, losing the territory and returned them again. On the lands who once belonged to her, new states arose. Some of them entered into the fight against the empire, but most of them retained close religious and cultural connections with Byzantium. At different times, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Serbia, South Italy became independent countries. But common Christian roots, the strong cultural influence of the Empire allow us to consider - up to the XIII century. - Fine art of these countries as national modifications arising on the basis of general artistic culture.

The first Christian communities gathered in the houses of the townspertsev, catacombs, caves or open-air outside the city.
But the number of those who believed in Jesus grew, the meetings became crowded. When the persecution of Christians stopped, and the emperors allowed the followers of the new faith to open worship, then, apparently, the meetings of the communities began to take place in the basilicists - public buildings, where the documents were previously kept, the courts were held and made various transactions. When Christians began to build their own The first temples, the Basilica served as samples for them. From them, the Byzantine Early Christian Churches inherited the rectangular plan and the longitudinal separation of the internal space into separate parts of the oil (ships). Usually from the east, the central num of Christian Basilica completed apsida - the protrusion, which, as a rule, was blocked by a semi-gun.
The basis of the design was walls with rare and narrow window openings. Bonded or cylindrical vaults were restored to these almost deaf walls. Thus were built throughout the Roman Empire: in Syria (Calb-Louze, end V c.), In Transcaucasia (Bolnissky Zion, V-VII centuries), in Rome (Santa Prudential, IV century).
Simple design of the cult building expressed extremely important ideas for Christians. Let's try to feel them, considering one of the most ancient Christian churches - the Bolnisian Zion (Georgia). The massive walls of this temple, the twilight of its indoor space create a feeling of isolation, cut-off from the outside world, which, as we remember, was perceived as hostile. Thick walls were needed to architect not only in order to withstand heavy vaults, reaching them all over the entire length, but also to create a sense of security in the christian christian. For a long time, the church was associated with the image of the cave, a cache that shelters Christians and their shrines.
Apparently, early temples were poorly decorated. In the eyes of many Christians, the decorations were a sign of artificiality. External beauty, from their point of view, only led people from true, inner beauty.
At the same time, the church was presented by the real presence of God, and therefore some Christian architects wished to decorate it. With IV century Temples appear with luxurious columns, often broken from the ancient buildings. But such a desire to decorate could be interpreted as "insulting the artist-God" (Cyprian, III century).
The early Christian Writer of Lactation (III century) sharply condemned those who believed that "the more the temple will be decorated, the more beautiful images [in it], the more in it there is holiness." He believed that religion thus reduces to "human pleasures." The same principle of artistic asceticism, we can detect in the demands of theologians to expel excessive complexity, passionism, decorated from church music - so that it becomes strict and sublime and reminded the worldly. Long before the separation of church Christianity in the east and in the west of the empire was not exactly the same. Over time, the differences became more and more. The originality of religious ideas was impact on the evolution of the image and the design of the temple in these regions.
So, for Eastern Christianity turned out to be more relevant than for the West, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe connection of God and the human world and the "mascot of the human world of God's Light" (pseudo-donisions). This idea has found a visible embodiment in those who appeared from IV. In the east of dome churches. Prior to this, only small square or round in terms of buildings were blocked by the domes: Baptistery (baptism) and Mortyria (tomb).
First build dome temples of steel in Syria, where they blocked the dips and secular structures. However, to build a dome over the central part of a large rectangular building is quite difficult. First, it is necessary to construct the transition from the rectangle to the round base of the dome; Secondly, it is necessary to create a solid support for him.
Syrian architects solved these tasks by setting the dome from a tree or porous brick. Sometimes they were built in the form of high cones so that the main severity was going down, and did not cut the walls. In the center of the building put columns that served as the main support for the dome. That is how Syrian architects, built in the VI century. Church of St. George in Bosrera. With the victory of Christianity, the strengthening of the Church and the growth of the power of the Christian Empire, the image and design of the East Christian temple is changing throughout Byzantium. Basilica is gradually inferior to large central buildings. The basis of their plan lay a square or a weakly elongated rectangle, sometimes an octahedron or even a circle. At that time, dark closed interiors leave from Christian churches. The perception of the temple as the symbol of the whole of God comes to change the image of the cave and the sensation of the casing.
One of these temples was the Ravenskaya Church of San Vital. It is in terms of an octagon (only apside and the pit out of the main volume). Gully dome rests on eight powerful stuff. These foundations are joined by arched floors with walls. They are addressed to the center of the hall, from which the viewer creates the impression of the ease of dome design. A column with gilded capitals decorated with thin and diverse threads are set between iteming. Wide windows of windows allow you to penetrate the light inside the building.
Its walls are lined with multi-colored marble and decorated with precious mosaic. They laid it out of pieces of smalts - non-ferrous glass alloys. Smalt, reflecting rays, creates the magic effect of the birth of light inside the temple. On one of the walls captured the solemn output of the emperor of Justinian, carrying a Golden Bowl as a gift. On the other - surrounded by the court of his wife Feodora with a precious clock (bowl for communion) in hand.
The artist gave basic characters: Justinian, Feodore, Bishop Maximina, Communion, Belisaria, his wife and daughter - portrait similarity. These mosaics transmit the atmosphere of the imperial solemn processions with their complex ceremonial, luxury, with splendor of silk clothes, decorated with gold sewing and precious stones. The importance of events is emphasized by the tensions of poses and persons of all participants in the procession. Sparkling golden background, from which they act, and their disembodiment make imperial covers and a retinue involved in an intangible world.
At the same time, we see how much time the artist spent, seeking to portray the vile luxury and wealth. People of the time said that two thirds of the wealth of the whole world focused in Constantinople and only one third went to the rest of the world. This image can be considered a peculiar illustration of the views of Europeans about the fabulous magnificence of Byzantium. In 532-537. By order of Emperor of Justinian in Constantinople, the St. Sophia Cathedral (God's wisdom) was built. Detailed stories have been preserved and many legends about the construction of this greatest temple of the Eastern Christian world.
There are known names of two architects who were entrusted with their construction. This is Anti-Thrall and Isidore from Milet. According to the testimony of the contemporary of Anthimius, not only "superior to his art of all contemporaries", but also "towering over the glorious masters of the past" (proof. I. 1).
The decision on the erection of St. Sophia was taken after the Bunth "Nika" (January 532), during which part of the city burned together with the old church. The new church Emperor Justinian immediately conceived as a grand cathedral corresponding to the size and decoration of his empire's magnitude.
After clearing a firefish from the treasury, money was allocated for the purchase of nearby private houses. They were demolished, and a platform for the construction of the temple was prepared. She was sanctified, and then the emperor himself laid the first stone of the future church. Construction occurred with constant attention and with the active participation of Emperor Justinian. The historian of the proof, on the eyes of which took place, wrote that the emperor was at the construction site every day.
From all over the country, Masters were brought to Constantinople. This delivered the best marble and granite breeds. For decorating the temple, whole fragments from pagan temples broke out. For example, eight porphy-level columns from the sanctuary of the Sun God were brought from Rome.
As a result of the grand work, which lasted five years, architects and builders not only decided the most complicated constructive problems, but also created a fundamentally new image of the Christian temple, which became a benchmark for many generations of architects.
In terms of the Cathedral is a rectangle with parties 77 by 71.7 m. From the West, the courtyard was adjacent to it, surrounded by portica. From a wide range of 9 doors lead inside the cathedral. In the center of the building there is a huge square room with two semicircles, from the eastern and west side, while Eastern has three apses, the central of which is altar. With the South and Northern Side, the hall is limited to two floors of magnificent colonnade, there are two side sobes behind them. Above the central part of the building was built a dome (now its diameter is 31.5 m). This dome (initially it was wider and more gentle) created a significant time. In order for the building to endure it, the builders laid out the dome porous bricks, and most importantly, they applied a new design, which allowed to distribute the severity not for the entire length of the walls evenly, but only on specially reinforced parts of the building. This design was the temple frame as it were.
The dome rests on the powerful circular arches and on the sail (sail - part of the dome variety in the form of a concave triangle). With them, the severity is transmitted to powerful foundations located on the four sides of the central hall. With the Eastern and Western sides, it was additionally redistributed with the help of Konch on the foundations located between the apsides (Konha - the arch in the form of a half-century).
From the outside, the building was strengthened by four parties with powerful vertical protractions - counterphorts. This design gave the opportunity to make openwork arcades, galleries in the walls of the temple, and put a lot of windows. Based on the dome there are forty windows. When the bright rays of the light shine into these windows, the subtle bulkheads between them are almost not visible. The dome is imprisoned above the temple, without touching the walls.
The space of the cathedral is literally permeated with light. This effect is enhanced by reflection of rays from mosaic paintings. Mosaics reflected the light, flicker, flashed under the right rays of the sun. The abundance of light in the temple was not random. It is connected with the desire to give parishioners to feel the presence of the Lord. After all, light from gospel times is the definition of Christ, and in the lips of the Father of the Church of Vasily the Great (IV century) Light is the "visible form of the Divine".
Until us from the time of construction of the temple, only ornamental mosaics reached. The images of the Byzantine emperors belong to a later time. But they also give an idea about the features of the decoration of the building.
There was no place to be transient here, so even when the artist portrayed concrete living people, he sought to express primarily a kind of common idea. For example, on the mosaic of the cathedral in the emperor Konstantin - a drunkard and a walk, and his wife Zoya is a self-willed woman who was at that time for 60 years. But the artist shows us quite different: Zoya Cupveava and gentle, the emperor is serious and strict, their images embody the idea of \u200b\u200broyalism. As in Ravennic mosaics, the figures are somewhat elongated. At the same time, they are even more static, and the lines of the contours of dry and tough.
Exquisite carved ornaments, multicolor marbles, mosaics, a golden cross in the dome, silver panicadals in the form of trees (who did not survive to this day) - everything was to strengthen the impression of solemnity, to strive and admire the viewer. Holy Sophia as the main temple of the Empire was its wealth and power. It was like "the" personification of the empire "perceived this cathedral contemporary construction, Poet Paul Silence.

The bright temple with luxurious interiors, covered with a huge, but light dome no longer caused the images of the cave and fortress. Christianity in the VI century. - This is the religion of the strongest state of the Mediterranean. It is about to cover the whole world. Therefore, the temple of the Christian God is now - the personification of the world itself, over which the Dome of the Sky spread out with the golden cross stacked on it.
However, the Holy Sofia and the Earlyzantine Basilica Rodinits the general approach to the design of the appearance of the temple. Outside the cathedral is practically not decorated. His walls remained brick. In this one can see the desire of architects to express the idea already known to us about the opposite of the world of the Heavenly World of Earth. At the same time, the appearance of the building amazes the grace and power. The admired sense of construction, proof, wrote: "In height, he rises as if the sky and, like a ship on the high waves of the sea, stand out among other buildings."
In the VI-VII centuries. In different parts of the empire, churches were erected, blocked by domes. The construction of dome churches marked the victory of the presentation of the temple as an image of the universe. In the Syrian hymn VI in. The "sublime arch" of the church is compared with the "heavens of heaven", wide and beautiful arches - "with four sides of the world", and the three parties engaged in the choir - with the Trinity.
Such temples were built in Armenia, Syria, Georgia. A distinctive feature of these structures along with domes was centrity. So, the Armenian Church of Refiment in Echmiadzin and Georgian Jarvari are in terms of a cross. The angular premises in them are fendered off with the walls from the central volume, so the incoming clearly saw that it enters the symbolic and at the same time the real space of the cross.

With vi in. The icons begin to play in the interior of the temples. It is in this form of art that the aesthetic ideas of Christian culture were embodied to the most fully.
We know little about the iconopy of the early period. Most of the early icons died during the iconococration (VIII-IX BB). It is believed that at the heart of this type of art lay a clock Egyptian portrait, which penetrated the early Christian Wednesday.
The fact that icons existed already in II century, we know from the works of the first theologians. Apparently, the fear of idolatry detained recognition of icons as a cult subject. The icon was allowed only in the VI century, and only at the VII Ecumenical Cathedral (VIII century) was recognized as the mandatory affiliation of the cult.

In Byzantium, the icons usually wrote an egg tempera on wooden boards covered with Levkas (special soil) and rarely on canvas. The plots of the earthly life of Jesus could be deposited, but much more often artists painted separate images on icons: Jesus, Virgin, Apostles, Archangels, Saints (the word Icon itself is in Greet, it means an image). At the same time, artists wrote not changeable faces, but the faces of those who are in the eternal, ideal world.
For a Christian, the icons serve as a window to the Heavenly World, help to build the mind "through the physical contemplation for the contemplation of spiritual" (pseudo-donisions).
Icon was much more common in the Christians of the East, rather than the West. In Western theology, for a long time (before the dissemination of mystical exercises), the opinion was dominated that the main path to the divine truth lies through the mind, the feelings, including vision, play a minor role - they can deceive a person. Blessed Augustine said: "Only reasonable vision does not deceive."

In the east, on the contrary, knowledge through sensory perception seemed more perfect. At the same time, the vision was often called "first of the senses" (John Damaskin, VIII century). In this regard, the Byzantine thinkers preferred a symbol symbol symbol, since the sign awakens the thought primarily ("unraveling with the mind"), and the image "carries the similarity of the shown and awakens the feeling."
Based on the purpose of the icon - to help through the sensual perception of the image to come to heaven times - the icon painters developed special techniques. Usually saints, archangels, Maria and Christ, the artist painted turned face straight to the viewer or three-quarters, with widely revealed eyes as directed to the believer. Some masters strengthened this effect. They wrote their eyes in such a way that they seemed to follow a person, with whatever parties he watched on the icon.
With the same aspiration - to help the upcoming before the icon, to feel the proximity with the spiritual world, apparently, it was associated with the use of reverse perspective icon painters (in which the subject does not decrease, but increases). Since the reverse perspective has, unlike the straight line, the point of convergence is not in the depth of the space of the picture, but in front of it, then the images on the icons seemed to be taken forward.
At the same time, the use of a reverse perspective could be associated with a not always informed painter's desire to portray mysterious, unlike, or even the opposite of the earth, the space of higher spheres.

Icon was understood not only as an image that can be erected to spiritual entities, but also as a sacred subject. In it, the most enclosed Divine grace. The Christian writer John Damascus considered the Christian writer, but ordinary, uniformly parishioners thought.
The stories about the miraculous, healing, defending and guarding icons are a direct reflection of the conviction of Christians in the sacrality of the icon itself. In one source IX century. It is described that some priests pushed paints from icons, mixed them with wine and bread and gave parishioners during communion.
The idea that the icon is the carrier of the saving force certainly had an impact on the interpretation of icon images. Most of the faces created by artists add to us a look, giving peace and hope for a fair trial.
As a rule, a specific image on the icon corresponds to a certain background - most often gold, red or white. Sometimes the artist placed a conditional space behind the pictures: Landscape with slides and elements of architecture. At the same time, the shapes are often given a hint, intricately twisted and shifted - as if the artist wants to demonstrate the instability and variability of the transient world.
Often in the same space, the medieval painter portrayed the time-based events. For example, next to the crucified Christ, he could be drawn by going on Calvary. Events occur, and time does not move. This is due to the fact that the events of the sacred history occur as if, they may repeat. So, Easter is celebrated not only in memory of the Resurrection of Christ, but also as his real resurrection.

From VIII to IX century. Byzantium survived one of the most complicated periods of its history. The enemies were tested from all sides, once a huge empire lost most of their possessions, the discord between the iconists and the iconoborets began within society.
The iconoborets believed that by depicting God or Saint with the help of "Dead Matter" (paint, brush, on the board), the artist insults the creator. They saw an idol in the icon, the ban on the veneration of which is in the Bible.
Taking advantage of the support of emperors, the iconoborets were closed by monasteries, burned icons, knocked painting from the walls of the temples. As a result of Byzantine icon painting, we can judge mainly at later work (XV centuries).
At this time in the icon, as in the wall painting, the contour line began to dominate. Black and white modeling almost leaves painting, paints are becoming more dense. Folds only outlines the poses of the figures and the nature of their clothing, but do not transmit volumes. With the XII century Artists began to write clothes with different colors that were overflowed like oriental silk. From this image became even more surreal.
Details of people, hands and legs turn into signs, their movements are subject to strict regulations, and the images themselves finally become disembodied.
It was from this time that the icons mostly respond to their primary purpose: to open the prayer constant spiritual entities. An example of a high compliance of expressive means and tasks facing the icon painter can serve as icon "Grigory Mirajor" (XII century, Hermitage).
On a golden background, the artist placed the saint semi-phigure in yellow clothes, which not so much allocate it out of the background, as they connect with him. He himself is the carrier of God's grace, and everything around him is filled with gold of Divine Light. The right hand with long thin fingers supports the book that the saint carries in the other - a closed cloak - hand. The book (probably the new covenant) is depicted in the opposition and it seems that the icon to the viewer appears from the plane.
The dark face is transmitted schematically. It is as if scored from signs: lips, nose, eyes. White hair is made in an ornamental manner. Black and white modeling is reduced to the darker color of the cheeks and the patterns and to light spots near the eye, near the eyebrows and mouth. The character was transmitted mainly elegantly broken lines of eyebrows and large, sad eyes.
This conventional image of a noble, calm, all-in-one, a bright person of another world, addressed to the viewer, is ideal for the upcoming, praying for forgiveness and intercession.
At the same time, icons appear in Byzantium, allowing not only to prestundand in front, but also to empathize to him. One of the masterpieces of Byzantine painting was the icon of the "Vladimir Mother of God" (XII century, Tretyakov Gallery).
Our Lady and Jesus sniffed to each other's cheeks. Maria gently hugs her son, and the baby walked his mother's neck and looks at her. The image of the Mother of God is strict and noble, the child is trusting and gently. In the huge, fascinating, stopping the viewer's eyes of Mary, we see inexhaustible strength and deep sorrow about the future fate of the Son.
The color range of this icon is cobalt, ocher, gold is solemn and at the same time restrained. The deaf tones are adjacent to thin strokes, the baby's clothing is overflowing with golden white shine. Images are irregular, but at the same time, the artist as part of the traditional style for him extremely brightly embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bthe spiritual unity of two people and made us empathize with them. Before the icon, Byzantius was one on one with God. Individualism was generally peculiar to the nature of Byzantine. In the text xi century A kind of kekavman affect his son to be careful in a conversation with any person, not to refuse even for friends, not to go to the pions. He spoke to his son: "In a small grief, a friend is still recovered, but if you are a big misfortune, so no one will be misleading you - not a friend."
Not by chance at that time, the number of Harchevien and public baths decreased dramatically: the Byzantines were afraid of communication. Another subject of the empire, Pwell, said that many, having come to the feast to a high dying, after a friendly drip and conversations turned out to be in a torture basement.
In Byzantium, the surveillance and inflation flourished. Officials were supposed to stake on the purity of Romeyev's thoughts, and unreliable punished, as the "enemies of the people" and the "enemies of the Power". All this led a person to the desire to limit his communication, clicter in itself or in a close family circle.
It is not by chance that the houses of the Byzantines went out to the street with deaf walls, and the windows were sent to the courtyard. The same kecaper called on his son to take care of his home, since "Your house will take you and in it you will find a rest," even having lost positions and friends.

Flowers and birds. Fragment of mosaic. Church of Santa Constance. Rome. IV century

Byzantines loved their home. They decorated with drapery rooms. The carpets drove the floors and covered the tables, followed by the VII century. No longer restrained, but sat on chairs and tabretes.
The carpets of Armenian work were especially valued. Rooms lit by oil lamps. Sometimes they resembled antique and differed only shots depicted on them.
Some of these lamps are stored in the Hermitage, made in the form of lily, camel, fish and dragon heads. There is also an unusual chandelier made in the form of basilica with apse and columns. The subject of a special pride of the owners was a silver and gold dishes, often decorated with scenes on antique plots, such as a jar of VII century. With naked priestess and dragon.
The objects of the applied art of Byzantium are highly appreciated in the empire itself and beyond its turns. The emperors gave them to foreign ambassadors and rulers, merchants sold them in Western Europe, in Russia, in Central Asia, China, India; Their boosts were captured during wars.
Many sovereigns took to the service and took over the Byzantine masters in their countries. So, Karl Great in VIII century. The Masters-enamers from the city of Limoges belonged to the Byzantium of Southern Italy, and the Norman Prince Rozhor II in the XII century. I reset the Byzantine silkodel to Sicily.
Applied art of Byzantium, like no other type of art, relied on the experience of antiquity masters. The plots of the work of cutters on the bone and stone, chasochikov and others often remained secular, and sometimes they were straightforwards to pagan myths and legends. So, on Byzantine silver dishes, we can see Alexander Macedonian, Orpheus and Euridic. Of course, these images were interpreted in the Christian spirit: Alexander - as an embodiment of royality, and the story of Eurydice is like a symbol of the ascension of a sinful soul to the Lord.
The Christian worldview has affected not only an understanding of the plots, but also on the style of work of masters of applied art. Over time, the images have become less voluminous.
Even in small works, the Byzantine masters could create the impression of greatness and solemnity. So, on a small - 12 x 6.8 cm - the Yashmova icon of Christ the blessing (X century), stored in the Armory, the image of Christ is very majestic and monumental.
The highest achievement of the applied art of Byzantium was the septo enamels. Their manufacturing was a very time-consuming process. On the metal (gold or silver) base, they were applied with the finest gold ribbons of the outlines of the future figure, then filled the formed by a quartz powder with dyes of different colors, then burned. The powder melted and turned into a shiny glass mass. After that, enamel grinded. Golden strings remained on color surfaces. Byzantine enamels are distinguished by the fineness of the performance, brightness and, at the same time, the sophistication of the color combinations. An example of such a work can be the samples of the "Descent to Hell", stored in the Greaming Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.
Often the influence of Eastern traditions is noticeable in the works of applied art. An example is a silver bowl of the XII century. With the image of King David and Bathsvia. It is decorated with chasing, gilding and a mobile, and her finely engraved ornament is made in oriental style (Hermitage).
A great influence on the applied art of Byzantium was Iran. In X-XI centuries The Byzantium began to manufacture fabrics imitating Iranian. They were decorated with eagles, lions, elephants and oriental ornaments. Now the outfits of the Byzantines have no longer resembled antique robes. Gradually, they became similar to the eastern. Clothes becomes already, and folds are cleaned. Festive robes of wealthy laity and servants of the church are richly decorated with gold embroidery, pearls, precious stones.
The eastern neighbors of Byzantium had an impact on the court ceremony, and on the court tastes. In Budapest Museum, the Crown of Constantine IX Monomakh is kept. On her next to the static images of the wife of Constantine - Zoe - and her sisters Theodora was placed slim, flexible girls whose poses resemble the dances of Persia and India.
Many objects of the applied art of Byzantium died in wars, fires; Metal products were integrated into ingots. Yet the complex technique of Byzantine products and the exquisite taste of their creators forced people of different countries, crops and eras to carefully store rare surviving samples of silk fabrics, decorations, salaries, various vessels and other items. In the service and at school, the streets and markets, Byzantica was a subject of the empire - Romem (Roman). He spoke in general for the inhabitants of the Empire language - Koin, based on the Lategorical. But at home, among their loved ones, he became Greek, Armenian, Syrian, Slavyanin ... He spoke in the language of ancestors, behaved accordingly by their covenants, listened and sang those songs that the father and mother performed him.
It can be said that the national cultures of the peoples who inhabited the empire continued to live in the Byzantine culture. The result of communication of these peoples was mutual enrichment of cultures. Their interaction we can detect not only in applied creativity, but also in other areas of art, for example in music.
Unusual and not quite understandable attracted Byzantines. We know about it, because the church sharply condemned the songs with "unclear exclamations", "passionate execution", complex vote.
Particular "Gothic songs and dances" were especially condemned. But entertainment secular culture then, as now, it also fed and renewed due to the musical culture of other peoples.

From the folk musical art of the melody and manner of execution penetrated the temples. However, church hierarchs treated such attempts very sharply. Consciously seeking to burn out from the worldly, insulting God, influence, the Byzantine church musical art has gone through the canonization of melodic formulas. In the Byzantium there were eight. Each sylla of the text most often corresponded one sound. Music was supposed to be smooth and within one work remain in one tonality. She should not interfere with his beauty to perceive the text. Her destination was to focus the listener on the innermost meaning of the text, to help a person will renounce himself from the sinful world, to fry to heaven.
In the cathedrals, two choirs of singers took part in the divine service. Sang and the parishioners themselves. Some parties were entrusted with soloists - psalt. Domestik led the choir - gestures. Apparently, like a modern conductor, he asked the pace, showed an increase and decrease in sound.
From VII century The regulation of the consistency of prayers and singing began. The vastness of the musical repertoire forced the Byzantines to look for this method of recording music, which would allow reproduce the melody not by memory, but from the sheet. But in the X-XII centuries. Byzantines could indicate only the direction of the melody (up or down). However, it has already become an important help of the Byzantine Church of her desire for uniformity. In the VIII century The first liturgical (liturgical) books with a musical repertoire appeared.

TO nigi played a huge role in the life of the Byzantine society. In Constantinople, book benches were located in the very center of the city - in the royal portica. Competent people in Byzantium were quite a lot. Some researchers suggest that for a hundred Byzantines in the X-XII centuries. It was about ten people who could read.
Schools existed not only in cities, but also in the villages. Literacy opened access to a secular and spiritual career. But knowledge was valued not only for the opportunities they gave in promotion, but also for the joy that the process of knowledge itself gives.
Already known to us Kekavmen called the Son to read a lot, and added: "If you love it - you will be happy." Byzantines continued to love Homer and Ezop, read novels, legends, satirical works. But, of course, religious literature had a particular importance.
The first Byzantine writings, as in the ancient times, were written and corresponded on the scrolls. But already in IV century. Instead of scrolls in Byzantium, the codes that presented books in a modern understanding were widely spread: they consisted of separately discrepanied sheets.
As in an ancient temper, the manuscript was illustrated. But unlike an ancient illustration, which was placed on the fields of a scroll or directly in the text, the illustrations of the codes were located at the top or at the bottom of the page, and sometimes they occupied the sheet of its entirely.
The rectangular space of the page created by artists the desire to highlight the same limited, closed rectangular space for illustration. The illustration turned into a small picture. Often, she framed a colorful border, such as, for example, in the Gospel of Rabuly (VI century, stored in the Florentine Lureencyan Library).
Despite the observance of the communistan canons, the miniature felt freer than the icon painter or the artist painting the church. He much more often applied to the traditions of antique painting. This is especially noticeable in miniatures of the so-called Paris Psaltiri (x in., Stored in the National Library in Paris). Here the figures are volumetric, their movements are freer and less signs, landscape backgrounds look much more specific than modern icons and frescoes.
Gradually, paints in miniature will become brighter and more denser, she herself is more motley, the number of decorative details will increase: ornamental inserts, bizarrely decorated with capital letters. At the same time, the relationship between characters of illustrations collapses. They will increasingly be depicted with the viewer. We can say that with the time of thumbnail, more and more came to the icon.
The Byzantine miniature had a great influence on the design of books in almost all Christian world.
In Armenia, the book was considered as a gate leading to God, and as a saving relic. The book was healed by the patients, they took her on the battle with the enemy, the chroniclers reported on the death and damage of the book, as a big grief.
Such an attitude contributed high level Development of art calligraphy and book miniatures. Illustrations of X-XII centuries. Monumental, figures are coming to the audience, the artist places them in an architectural framing, which has pronounced oriental features (the Echmiadzian gospel of the city.).
Later, in the XII-XIV centuries, miniatures acquire greater illustrative, narration and colorfulness. Often they are similar to precious jewelry (Chasoz, Kilicia, XIII century).
In the acute struggle for the existence with Islam, which the Eastern Christian world had to be conducted, the book played the role of the keeper of his memory and traditions. In the Byzantine society, where I had to be invariably carefully, and where the father could advise his son, so that he did not lose his vigilance, the book could replace the interlocutor and even a friend.

P adencing interest in public life, the desire for self-insulation influenced almost all areas of Byzantine art. Particularly significant changes occur in theatrical art. The theater inherited by Byzantium from Antiquity, gradually loses its civil and raising meaning.
In the VI century Only household comedies were played - mimes and pantomimes, which presented something similar to ballet, with frivolous dancing. Apparently, in a pantomime, which was accompanied by music and singing, the most important role was played by the movements of the hands. By a member of the expression of one of the Byzantines, good actors knew how to "speak with their own hands."
The content of mimic plays was simple. Their basic characters are a widow, the soul, a drunkard, a terrible mother-in-law, an inquirer, stepmother, fortune teller.
Improvisation played a big role in theatrical action. In the plot, jokes and stories on the evil day were woven. The settings were carried out not only in the theater, but also at the racetrack, where they were filled between the interviews between the connoisseurs.
The certificate of writing and executing one of such scenes in 1x in is preserved. Her plot was associated with a real story. A certain official - prepositions, took the ship from the widow. The widow applied for help to the mimes who wrote and played their representation on the racetrack in the presence of the emperor. Mimes pulled the car on the arena with a pitiful ship. One mime began to offer to another to swallow it. He began to show his effort, but nothing worked. Then the first mime said: "I climb with ease swallowed the ship with three sails, and you can't cope with a sorrowful ship."
The emperor was intrigued and ordered to investigate the case. The proceedings ended in that he was preparing burned on a fire on the same racetrack where the cheerful scene was played. Thus, the comic buffonade received the tragic finale.
Emperors-iconoborets patronized theater. For them, it was a way to deal against icon-controller. The imperial courtyard often ordered the scenes that the life of the monks and nuns should have risen, among which there were a large number of admirers of icons.
In general, the church was hostile to theatrical ideas. The Tirully Cathedral was generally opposed to theatrical action. By VIII century Schools preparing mimes and theatrical buildings disappear.
The new stage in the life of the theater began with his penetration into the temple. From viii century. The church service includes dialogues for gospel topics. In IX in. Emperor Konstantin Bagryanorovnoye ordered to build a scenic orchestra in the Church of St. Sophia. Thus, the existence of a new theater genre is recognized as a liturgical drama, or, otherwise, Mysteries (from Greek. Sacrament).
However, by adopting the theater in his Lono, the church subjugated him: the theatrical action became extremely religious. Improvisations characteristic of the early Byzantine Theater were completely excluded. Even miseans are now carefully prescribed. We can say that in the Byzantine theater, as in other types of Byzantine art, the canon wins.
Mysteries were usually played during large religious holidays. At Easter showed the resurrection of Christ, the phenomenon of Christ to students, the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles. For these ideas sewed special costumes. The certificate is preserved that the deacons represented angels in the costumes with wings. In these outfits, they should have been after the presentation to the palace. Apparently, by analogy with the biblical story about the arrival of Angels to Abraham, the arrival of actors to the palace could be considered as an expression of God's blessing to the emperor.
The disappearance of the secular theater and the formation of church mysteries indirectly was associated with the general spiritualization of the Byzantine life. Family relationships, clothes, behavior manner are beginning to be perceived as immutable rules, bequeathed by God and the Church.
Gradually, everything is subjected to strict regulatory: it is impossible to take the communion irrelevant, it is impossible to go to the bath on Wednesdays and Fridays, it is impossible to sit at the table to one, etc.

FROM IX century Regulations and canons permeate all the life of Byzantine. It was at that time that a new architectural type of building was developed, preserved in the East Christian world until today. The basis of its structure was the plan in the form of a cross, the central part of which was overlapped with a dome on the drum. Such a structure of the building received the name of the crusade of the dome system. The general distinctive features of these temples were the decrease in building area, noticeable growth up and the creation of a single internal space.
Reducing their scale, especially noticeable with x1 c., Apparently, it was associated with a gradual change in the social life of Byzantines. For a long time, social mobility was characterized for the Byzantine society - the relative ease of movement of man both up and down the social staircase. Not only a wonderful person, but, under certain circumstances, a warrior, a peasant, a merchant managed to achieve the imperial throne. At the same time, the courtes closest to the sovereign could lose his position, wealth and at the end of life to ask for alms.
Now the social groups closed more and more. It was at that time that the temples were not built for everyone, but only for a certain circle of society: for nobility, for the city quarter, etc.
Although the square of churches decreased, the cathedrals stretched up, all the brighter expressing a man's desire to God. Now church buildings have been clearly distinguished against a single-two-storey building. The beauty of the temple was incorrectly associated with his height.
A drum grows on which the dome is placed. The church is often surrounded by bypass with an open or closed gallery. As a result, the building seems complicated from the ledges, acquires pyramidality. At this time, new decorative details appear. The facades of churches are faced with a multi-colored stone or decorated with alternating the layers of white stone with brick patterns. As a result, the appearance of the facility loses its closure, becomes festive.
Increase the inner volume of the building architects managed, developing a frame design. Supports for dome overlap are so powerful that the architects no longer put the walls or columns. Therefore, a person who is inside the temple can see all its space. The church seems spacious and easier. So built, for example, a large and small church of the monastery of Khosios Lucas in Fokhid, Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in the Daphny Monastery. Walls and drums of all these temples are cut through a large number of windows. Only individual parts of the walls remain deaf, sometimes specially reinforced to withstand the severity of the overlap.
Essential innovation B. byzantine temples It became fundamentally different than in antiquity, the organization of the perception of architectural masses in the interior. The system of teetonicity (clarity and clarity of the membership of the raise and carrier parts) comes to the principle of tectonic and carrier parts), which is replaced by the real role of structures and details. While inside the church building, we may not feel the severity of the dome. It seems to us with a shy up. At the same time, the circular arches create a sense of flow of architectural masses from top to bottom.
This multidirectional movement was represented extremely important for the Eastern Christian dogmakenics to the ideas: about the constant descent of the Divine in the creature world and about the possibility for a person come, climb to God. Violation of the principle of tectonicity, creating an illusory, irrational sensation? It was close to the Eastern Christian consciousness, thirsty to come "ineffore and incomprehensibly to the inequate and incomprehensible" (pseudo-donisions).
Gradually, the design of the church, in the inner space of which "merges more precious and alternate" (John Geometer, x in.), Becomes the most common in Byzantine architecture. The creation of a sensation of the multidirectional movement of architectural masses in the interior of the temple becomes the most important feature of Orthodox churches. She distinguished them from the West Christian cathedrals, in which the movement of architectural masses, as a rule, was unidirectional (forward, to the altar - in the Romanesque temple; Forward and up - in Gothic).

In Armenia and Georgia, cut off from Byzantium by the Arab invasion in the VII century., After the restoration of independence, from the x century, the development of the temple architecture has become their own way.
At the end of the city. In Armenia, a cathedral was built in Ani. For him, as in general, the best buildings of Armenian architects are characterized by the laconicity and clarity of architectural forms. But from earlier Armenian buildings there is a high height, which is also emphasized by vertical traction - thin decorative semi-colonctions.
The increase in volumes, many decorations and clarity of forms give the temple a greater solemnity.
Changes at the time and proportions of Georgian churches. But, if Armenian temples retain the monolithium volumes, then for the Cathedrals of Georgia, the characteristic stepperity and the pyramid is reinforced by tent floors at high drums. This feature clearly manifested itself in the main temple of the Gelantian monastery and in the Cathedral of Sveti-Tshoveli (Mtskheta, XI century).
In Armenia and Georgia, unlike Byzantium, the church was built entirely of stone. With x in. The relief is firmly included in their composition. These are carved ornaments using plant elements or scene images, for example, the presentation of the temple in the eastern facade of the Church of St. Cross in the Achpat monastery. Deep niches, arkatura and stone carving attached to the church buildings of the Transcaucasian plasticity and painting.

The temple painting system began to form since the construction of the first churches, but the final addition of the canon refers to the construction of crosses of dome temples.
As mentioned, the Church was represented by the Byzantine location, where the earthly and heavenly world are connected. The place it was strictly hierarchically divided into more and less sacred space.
The altar located in Apsida, for the obstacle, was considered the most sacred place of the temple, which marked the mountain world. Miryans there is prohibited there (except emperors). The altar thought as heaven, then as the Bethlehem cave, in which Jesus was born. There in the Orthodox churches priests create the sacrament of the Eucharist - the rite of the liberation of bread and wine into the flesh and the blood of Christ.
In the central part of Apsida, an image of Mary with a baby was placed, as in the Macedonian Church of St. Sophia in Ohrid (XI century), or Christ-Pantokrator (Almighty) - in the Cathedral of the Sicilian city of Cefalu (XII century).
The artist sought to portray Maria and Christ so that they seemed to be emerging from the unknown, other world in the world of people. This was especially managed by masters working in mosaic technique. On the concave surface of the apse, several convex waves were made. Because of this, the reflection of light on the slices of Smalt changes its intensity and creates the effect of radiance behind Mary and Christ. There is a feeling of a fear of a figure in the space apse.
Opposite the altar, in the western arch, or at the top of the wall separating the main building from the bottom, depicted the plot of Pentecost - the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles (which, as described in Acts, occurred in the fiftieth day after the resurrection of Christ).
In the dome of the cathedral, the image of the christ-pant-man was increasingly began to place. As a result, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dome as a symbol of the sky was even more visible, which was thought of the place of the Lord's throne.
The painting of the temple was usually divided into tiers. In the upper, the angels and the archangels were drawn, below - biblical characters and the so-called festive rank - cycle of 12 scenes: Annunciation, Christmas, Recording, Baptism, Transformation, Lazarus Resurrection, Entrance to Jerusalem, Crucifixion, Descent to Hell, Ascension, Pentecost and Assumption Virgin Mary.

In the XI-XII centuries. In the decoration of the temple an even more important role than before, the icons began to play. They were placed in different parts of the church, but mainly on the altar barrier. The central was Deesus (Greek. Praying, petition) - the plot, known since the VII century.
In the center of the composition there was Christ, usually with the Gospel in his hand, and on the sides - the Virgin and John the Baptist. The composition portrayed a terrible court, which will come at the end of times, then the Lord will judge the living and the dead, and his mother and John the Baptist will perform as mediators between God and people and will be interpreted for human genus.
Thus, the temple concluded not only the whole world, but all the time - from its creation to the end.
The Byzantine system of registration of the church had a huge impact on the painting of church buildings far beyond the empire. Under their influence, the ensembles of the Kiev Temple of St. Sophia, the Palatinsk Capella in Palermo, the Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice, the Gelantian Monastery in Georgia were created.
In the design of the interiors of the churches, artists of neighboring countries located on the former territories of Byzantium, continued to follow Byzantine traditions. However, quite quickly in the temple paintings of these regions appear new plots, for example, from the life of national saints, and painting acquires national traits. So, on the walls of the Bulgarian Church of St. Pantuimon and Nicholas in the Boyana (XIII century), the artist places the Bulgarian kings and their wives.
Their portraits, made in the technique of frescoes, carry individuality features. They are written by dense colors, with many color shades. As a result, the face and figures look more voluminous than in the modern Vizantine painting. The artist sought to show not so much powerful Bulgarian sovereigns as fully focused on spiritual reflections, truly believers Christians.
Even where, heading the arteel of painters stood by the Byzantine masters, as it was, for example, when painting the Church of St. Panteleimon in the Serbian city of Narrow, work was distinguished by a noticeable uniqueness. As part of the canon, artists embodied ideas important for a specific stage of development of Slavic culture. In addition, they sought to correspond to local tastes.
As a rule, artists who worked the XI - XIII centuries. Outside Byzantium, enjoyed bright colors, depicted the figures more significant, strong and courageous. Feeling his cultural mission, they sought to convey to people not only the content of plots, but also the elements of Christian ethics and dogmatic.
So, in the Church of the Non-Route, the master depicting the plot of the mourning of Christ managed to express ideas, extremely important for Eastern Christianity: about the connection of peace and God, about the fruitfulness of compassion and love. Unlike Western authors, he does not seek to show us the flour of the ester-anded body of Jesus and remind about the terrible man's fault in front of God. The master of a non-view writes a large, strong, living body from the Cross of Jesus, not allowing thoughts about the drainage, that even at that moment the Lord left the world.
The painter was striking not so much to remind the suffering of Christ, how much to express the compassion and the love of the mourning of the Savior people. It is these emotions that are transferred by the author in expressive facial expressions and gestures of the son of the Son of Our Lady and in the gusty movement of John, pressing Jesus's hands to her face.

At about the same time, when for each picturesque storyline in the interior of the temple, his place was fixed, the time and place of its execution during the service was determined for each church musical work.
In the XII century A new system comes to change the earlynessization system of recording sounds. Later, she began to call the average generalization notation. The new record fixed music quite accurately. Special signs indicated that the product was performed in which tonality. In addition, signs (the nema) appeared, which denoted the increase, decrease and the duration of sounds. Special signs recorded acceleration and slowdown in the tempo of the music.
Now her creator could be sure that it would be able to convey to other people their work in a rather accurate form. In church musical art begins to triumphant the uniformity.
With the XII century In Byzantium, the new manner of church singing is gradually distributed. In festively decorated outside and brightly painted inside churches, they begin to sound the sneakers - chants, where long-term vocals could sound for each syllable of the text - up to eight, and then more than eight sounds on one syllable.
The new style was called a charter, excellent.

IN XIII century Byzantium survived the hardest shock. In 1204, Constantinople was taken and looted by the Crusaders. They shared the country, installed her own orders in it. Only a small part of the Empire in Malaya Asia with the center in the city of Naqueka retained independence. But after 58 years, in 1261, the Byzantine emperors returned to themselves; The invaders were expelled.
On the territory of the restored empire in the XIII - early XIV century. The church traditional and inner decoration were built. The appearance of the temples at this time acquires greater colorfulness. Between white masonry stones builders laid out red bricks intricate patterns. The facades were placed a large number of windows in the arched frame. They decorated them with friezes of colored (yellow, green, blue) ceramic plates.
Such facade testified of the wealth of customers. Temples more and more began to resemble palaces, such as the Church of the Saint Feodora, erected in Constantinople at the beginning of the XIV century.
Such buildings were supposed to remind the Byzantines about the greatness and wealth of the empire. But to return the former greatness of Byzantium could no longer.
After at the beginning of the XIII century. Crusaders took and plundered Constantinople, an Hellenistic culture becomes spiritual support for many Byzantines. It was a source of experience, consolation and self-assertion precisely when the real reality lost stability, work was created, full of beauty and harmony, for example, the mosaic of the Church of the Savior Monastery of the Khora in Constantinople (XIV century), where in space, like a scene, are moving Light, elegant, can be in favor of palace tastes of several mannered, figures.
Manneriness and complications are manifested not only in painting and architecture, but also in a musical style that has spread to XV-XV centuries. Music becomes emotionally rich, not related directly with text content.
It is often used countless repetition of the same words or phrases. Moreover, the words are spread, and a series of meaningless syllables are inserted into them: KSI, nor, ho, pi, etc.
As a result of such techniques, the initial sequence of text was completely destroyed. He, as if deliberately darkened. Apparently, this suggests that Byzantine Melurgy (composers) of XV-XV centuries. They considered feelings arising from the perception of music, much more important than the texts.
In the XIV century Byzantium faced a new, much more terrible enemy - Omman Turks. As a result of their invasion by the beginning of the XV century. From the once the strongest state of the medieval world remained a small territory with the center in Constantinople - and part of Southern Greece.
In the last one and a half years, the existence of the state in the consciousness of the Byzantine society has grown a premonition of an imminent death. Rare outbreaks of hopes and heroic resistance to the Turks were replaced by despair and indifference.
Among the Byzantine intellectuals, the search for an exit from complex position and support was not so much in the outside, destroyed in the eyes of the world as inside the individual. In the Latezantine Society special meaning Acquired Isichams (from Greek. Silence) - a mystical teaching about the ways of human unity with God through the purification of the heart and the admission to spiritual beauty.
Supporters of Isiczz believed that this acquisition occurs through special knowledge without words, out of mind and logical thinking, by contemplation - just as the feelings are awakened without words.
The largest ideologist of Isiczz - Grigory Palama -In about "a certain immediate sensation of God, when the beam from him invisibly concerns the soul itself." In order to configure yourself to this condition, Isihasti took special postures that helped them mostly focus. Passionate prayers they uttered aloud out loud, then to themselves, and finally, one sense.
This practice required a special space, less solemn and luxurious, more modest and intimate. Apparently, due to these new needs, Byzantine architects begin to build in the XIV-XV centuries. Small size, scarp decorated inside the church and private chapels. Example - Church of Panagia Kulevitisa in Castoria (Greece). Its inner area is a little more than 20 square meters. m (approximately 4x5m).
Although the inner type of such churches was ascetic, their facade was still richly decorated. The temple is now perceived as a kind of "mysterious door", a place where a person "dies for the sinful world," and in which "resurrect for God."
Gregory Palam Temple was a way "the coffin, and even more than that way: he, perhaps, is it in a different way." Such a interpretation led to the fact that, along with centric cross-dome buildings, a lot of basilical, such as the Church of St. Vasily in Art, Church of St. George in Gerake appeared again.
With xiv c. The teachings of Isicasts about the Favorosky light - non-resident (unprecedented) light, who excused Christ on Mount Favor during transformation, began to influence the Byzantine painting. Favorsky light, from the point of view of Isicast, there is a saving force. He must be placed in herself to smell the sinful soul.
This is a dedicated, painful, but sweet burning, we see in the faces of the Byzantine Master of Feofan Greek, who worked in Russia. His reflection, albeit in a softer form, we find in the high-touch face of Christ the Redeemer on the mosaic of the Church of the Choir Monastery (XIV C), and in a strict, recoverable image of Christ the Pantokrator written in Constantinople at the beginning of the XV century. (GMI).

Byzantine visual art, focused on spiritual, increasing values, and more connected with the church than with the state, together with Orthodoxy survived the fall of Byzantium (1453).
Under the deep impact of the powerful and strikingly solid artistic culture of Byzantium, the art of many peoples continued to develop: Armenians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Russians, Ukrainians, Syrians, Turks, etc. Even in the new and the newest time, the Byzantine influence remained (and perhaps it remains) .

Conclusion

As is known, in 395. After the death of the last emperor, the Unified Roman Power of Feodosia I occurred the official division of the empire between his sons. But long before the official division, one of the Roman emperors, Konstantin I, seeking to preserve the power, exposed to more frequent attacks of barbarians and looting, transferred the capital from Rome to the province of the vistent. There, in 330, a new city was built (Constantinople), fortified from sushi and the sea.

The name "Byzantium" appeared only in the era of the Renaissance. The Byzantines themselves called their empire "Romary (Roman) kingdom", Constantinople - "New Rome", and the Byzantine Emperor considered the direct heir to Roman Caesarians. "New Rome" due to an exceptionally successful location quickly turned into the largest port, the place of intersection of the main trading routes between East and West. And the Byzantine civilization itself arose as if at the intersection between these two such different worlds. Constantinople became not only trading and craft, but also a cultural and religious center. For the Byzantines, he was the personification of the power and beauty of their empire. It was the fall of Constantinople (1453) became the end and all of the Byzantine civilization. The space of Byzantine civilization was not limited to its capital, it was huge - up to 750 million square meters. kilometers. The Empire included the Balkans, Malaya Asia, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Islands of the Eastern Mediterranean (including Cyprus and Crete), territory in Arabia, Black Sea and in the Caucasus. Historians believe that 30-35 million people lived in Byzantium. Among them were Syrians and Jews, Armenians and Georgians, Greeks and Copts (they lived in Egypt). Before the VII century The state language was Latin (although the Romans in Byzantium lived relatively a bit), then he was replaced by Greek.

The state-owned device of Byzantium can be characterized as a centralized military-bureaucratic monarchy. The head of state stood emperors (Vasilesi), who had different origins, upbringing and moral principles of behavior. The power of the emperor, which for many centuries could have been obtained by people of different origin with the help of political killings and coups, over time, acquired an ideological justification in the theory of "Divine origin of the emperor's power," which became known as the "Anointer of God". Court etiquette was developed, the rules for the behavior of the court. Knights-Crusaders, brought up in the spirit of equality with the king, after visiting Byzantium, recalled the fact that one person dares to sit in the presence of such a large number of noble people.

A kind of Byzantine civilization absorbed the traditions of not only ancient world, but also eastern civilizations, whose offensive of Byzantia has repeatedly had to be kept. In the VI century Byzantium led a long bloody war with Persia (Iran). Then the Arab tribes that have already created their statehood and the United New Religion - Muslim, spinning from Byzantium Syria, Palestine, North Africa. Then, in the VII century, Byzantium experienced the onslaught of Slavic tribes from the north, where the first Bulgarian kingdom was formed, until the beginning of the XI century. Being a serious enemy of Romeyev.

The Byzantine Empire existed for 1000 years longer than the Great Roman Empire, but was still conquered in the XIV century. Seljuk Turks. Despite its disappearance, Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles for the development and direction of culture have moved to neighboring states, and it is characteristic that medieval Europe developed on the basis of the last achievement. Byzantine empire, with full right can be called "second Rome", because Her contribution to the development of Europe and the whole world (let's say the creation of the largest legal codification of all times - the arch of the laws of Justinian) is nothing inferior to the Roman Empire itself

List of used literature:

"Big Soviet Encyclopedia", m, 1978

KUDAN A.P. Byzantine culture (X-XII century). - M., 1997.

Culture of Byzantium. In 3 tons. - M., 1984-1991.

Byzantium and Byzantine traditions, Moscow, 1991.

Lazarev V.N. Byzantium and Old Russian art, M., 1978.

Likhachev V.D. Art of Byzantium, M., 1981.

Udaltsova V.V. Byzantine culture, M., 1988.

Rtishcheva G.A. Materials for lessons.

For the centuries-old period of its history, the Byzantines created a bright and different-shaped culture, which became a kind of bridge between antiquity and medieval. This was facilitated by the education system in the country.

Children began to study in the 6-9th age. For two or three years, they learned to read in church books, first of all through the Holy Writing, and also acquainted with the foundations of the account and Greek grammar. Schools were both public and private. Continued training in secondary schools, mainly in Constantinople. From the highest schools of the most famous was Magnavra, founded in the IX century. The efforts of the outstanding scholar lion mathematics. She received his name from the Magnavra Hall in the Imperial Palace, where he was relying. However, this school existed only a few years. Therefore, university as such in Byzantium was not.

All sciences united under the general name of philosophy. Theology ranked here, mathematics, environmental education, ethics, politics, lawscript, gram-teak, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music.

The development of natural sciences, as well as mathematics and astronomy, was subordinated to the needs of practical life: crafts, navigation, trade, military, agriculture. Significant success reached the Byzantine in the medi-qina. The needs of medicine, as well as handicraft production stimulated the development of chemistry, on the successes of which testified, in particular, the invention by the Byzantines of Greek Fire.

In Byzantium, from all sciences, the greatest heyday reached the story. An outstanding Byzantine historian is considered Prokoki Caesarian , who lived in the VI century. And he was a member of many warrior and campaigns during the reign of Emperor Justinian. He glorified the emperor, his victory in wars and large-scale construction. But in the case found later, the "Secret History" of the proof was exposed to the terrible acts of Justinian, his wife Feodora and the nearest environment.

In the XI-XII century. Worked outstanding Byzantine historians Mikhail Pwell, Anna Comnina, Nikita Honiat and etc.

Secular and church genres were common in Byzantine literature. The most popular genre of church literature was the "Saints". For these works, a lethal description of the life of saints and martyrs, as well as the life of medieval Byzantium. Material from site.

The most significant architectural monument of Byzantium was the church of St. Sophia (God's wisdom) in Constantinople. His built B. 532-537. By order of Emperor Justinian. Construction work Two outstanding architect Isisidor from Mileta and Anthimiya from the trawl. The temple crowds a huge dome with a diameter of more than 30 m. Forty windows, cutting the dome and in the walls, fill the church of St. Sophia light. Inside it amazes unusual magnificence and wealth. Temple decorated best varieties marble, silver, gold, ivory, precious stones. Contemporaries, the amazed beauty of the temple of St. Sophia, seemed like this "wondrous creation was built ... not on the stones, but descended on gold chains from height of height."

Big recognition gained the Byzantine painting, first of all frescoes , mosaic and icons . Frescoes (paintings on the walls) and mosaic (images folded from multicolored stones or glass) preferably decorated church temples. The icons are picturesque image on the wooden boards of the face of Christ, the Virgin Mary and other saints could be seen not only in churches and monasteries, but also in the dwellings of Byzantines.

Life, Life Literature - Stories about spiritual and secular faces, canonized by the Christian Church.

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• culture of Byzantium 6-9 century

Culture of Byzantium

Smolko L.

Plan:

Greek Roman Roots of Byzantine Culture -

Features of Byzantine Culture

Periods for the development of Byzantine culture

V-VI1 BB. - The first flowering of culture. Transition from a slave-building building to feudal. "Golden Age Byzantium"

X-XII - the second rise of the Culture of Byzantium. Macedonian (X-XI) and the Comninovsky (end Xi-end XII) Renaissance.

XIII - temporary cessation of the existence of Byzantium as an independent state.

XIV-XV centuries. - The last takeoff and the flourishing of the Byzantine Empire. "Paleologovsky Renaissance".

Contribution of Byzantium to European Culture

Greek Roman Roots of Byzantine Culture

Byzantium existed from 395 to 1453. The history of its occurrence is such. In 330, a new capital of the Roman Empire was founded on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium Constantinople,named by the name of Emperor Constantine. In 395, the empire broke up into two parts - Western and Eastern, and the last - the Eastern Roman Empire - subsequently became referred to as Vizantia. And after after the empire itself ceased to exist

Byzantium has become a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued the further development of the best achievements of Roman civilization. The new capital is Constantinople - jealous and not successfully competed with Rome, quite quickly becoming one of the most beautiful cities of that time. She had large areas, decorated with triumphant columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grand aerobooks, magnificent terms, impressive defense structures. Along with the capital, many other cultural centers were developed in Byzantium - Alexandria. Antioch, Nikeya. Ravenna, thessalonics.

the culture of Byzantium was a real intersection of Western and Eastern cultures, a kind of bridge between East and West.

2 Features of Byzantine Culture

If you try to separate the Byzantine civilization from the civilization of Europe, the front and Middle East, then

the most important will be the following factors:

1. In Byzantium, there was a language community (the main language was Greek);

2. There was a religious community in Byzantium (the main religion was

christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

3. In Byzantium, with all the multi-ethnicity, an ethnic core existed,

consisting of Greeks.

4. The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management.

Stages of development

The evolution of Byzantine culture knew several stages of development. Byzantium has reached the largest territorial sizes and has become a powerful Mediterranean power.

The period of the early Middle Ages. The time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - the "golden age of Byzantium" and the so-called Byzantine "Renaissance

(from 395 to 842)

The process of formation of the Byzantine culture lasted several centuries. Byzantine art was a single, complex system of cultural property.

Education.In Byzantium, at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more people educated than in Western Europe. The old centers of ancient science are Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, new ones were created. In urban schools, they taught reading, a letter, an account, studied the poems of Homer, the tragedy of Eschil and Sophokla. Studied in schools children rich. For the Imperial Library, the best connoisseurs of Greek and Latin language has rewritten books. In Constantinople, the first highest school was opened in Europe. Higher medical school was created here. Medical care was thought out: a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe city was fixed behind each doctor, in which he treated patients.

Scientific knowledge.Geographers skillfully dragged cards of countries and seas, plans of urban blocks and links, which was still unattainable for the West. In IV century Large mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology worked here. Compiled medical encyclopedia included 70 books.

After the approval of Christianity as a state religion, the best representatives of science were persecuted, scientific centers were destroyed, schools were closed, the fanatics monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandria library. At the same time, church higher spiritual schools were created for the spread of Christianity.

Science becomes theological. In the VI century The monk of the Space of Indicoplov wrote "Christian topography", in which he recognized the system of Ptolemy in contrary to the Bible. Alchemy was dominated by the search for the "Divine Elekstroi". Doctors continued to defend the achievements of science and their practice. Alexander Trralsky studied the pathology and therapy of internal diseases. Pavel Eginsky was an encyclopedia for surgery and obstetrics. Byzantines invented the "Greek fire" - an incered mixture of powder, resin and nitrate. Lion mathematician has improved light telegraph. There was a number of scientific work on history in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the standpoint of the dominant class. In IX century Higher school has been restored in Constantinople.

Philosophy.In the period of early Middle Ages in Byzantium, neoplatonism was spread - a combination of stoic, epicurean and skeptical teachings with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Representatives: Burlles (410-485), John Grammar. In the design of mystical teachings, Maxim confessor played a major role. This era has become the time of the struggle of various philosophical views and adapting them to the interests of the feudal society. Neoplatonism - the doctrine of the hierarchically arranged world arising from the initial originated to him; The doctrine of the "climbing" of the soul to its source.

Literature.The ancient traditions were strong in all areas of ideology, especially in poetry. At this time, antique myths are retelling. About folk creativity are judged by the church literature of the time. The lyrics of this period was a novel Sladkopevts. Epic songs appeared about the fight against enemies, about the heroism of the defenders. The struggle of the people against feudal exploitation was reflected in oral folk art. Representatives of theological literature: Kosma Magomsky, John Damaskin, Feodor Studit. Patriarch Fotius (OK.810-890) creates a collection of "mineoblocks", consisting of annotations to 280 antique and earlynessizanic works with comments. Folk creativity experienced the influence of Slavic colonization.

Fine art and architecture.The highest flowering of art falls at the time of the Board of Justinian (482-565) and reflects state and religious ideas in their images. A colorful mosaic becomes common painting technique. Unsurpassed sample of the monumental art of Byzantium Mosaic Sofia Konstantinople (mid iX c). Applied art is a carving, sculptures from ivory. The iconist passes from an individual antique portrait to the symbolic image of the saints.

Music.The music art of Byzantium goes back to Persian, Jewish, Armenian Sension, as well as to the Lategorgie and Roman melodies.

The Board of the Macedonian dynasty (Middle IX is the end of the XI century) - "Macedonian Renaissance".

The Board of the Comnin Dynasty (the end of the XI is the end of the XII centuries) - "Comninovsky Renaissance".