Crisis in domestic psychology of the mid-20th century. How psychology has developed in the XX century
8. Open crisis in the psychology and the emergence of the first psychological schools.
An open crisis in psychology is marked by the creation of new schools and directions in psychological science.
In the open crisis, three stages are distinguished:
The emergence of the crisis situation (from 3 quarters of 70s to the tenths of the 20th century)
Open crisis (from 10 to 30 years of 20th century)
Attenuation of school struggle (with 30th in the present time)
Social and historical conditions, economic, political changes. In the culture there are different flows imbued with the spirit of decades.
General changes. Fundamental discoveries in physics, chemistry. Refusal of mind in favor of intuition and mystics. Revision of a person's place in the world.
Field inside psychology. In Europe, the psychological teaching V. Wundt is developing. In the USA - Titchener. By the beginning of the 20th century, there are 84 laboratories in the world, where experimental studies were conducted and a new knowledge was accumulated, which could not explain any theory.
With the accumulation of a new knowledge, the need for their explanation appears, in connection with this, new schools appeared.
1909 - psychoanalysis. Freud and Jung in the US read "Five Psychoanalyz Lectures"
1912 - Gestalt Psychology. The first experiment on the study of the Vertheimer Fenomenon. The experiment was spent on Cooller and Kofka.
1913 - behaviorism. Article Watson "Psychology from the point of view of behaviorism."
Also a little later, schools of descriptive psychology appear (Dieteks and Sprangler) and the French Sociological School.
Each of these 5 schools opposed the provisions of traditional psychology.
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Old provisions |
Contrasting schools |
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The psyche is identified with consciousness. |
Beheviorism: the psyche and consciousness were not subject to study. Gestalt Psychology: did not consider the psyche and consciousness. Descriptive psychology: agree with this provision. Fr. Soc. School: expanding concepts, adding an idea of \u200b\u200bprologous thinking. |
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The area of \u200b\u200bconsciousness is opposed to the remaining phenomena of reality |
Psychoanalysis: Do not agree with this statement. The basis is the biological factor. Bihewicism: Scheme "Stimulus" - "reaction" by the type of animal world. Gestalt Psychology: Insight is and in animals, a person is not unique Descriptive psychology: a person is opposed to the world around. Fr. Soc. School: A person is opposed to the world around the world. |
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The only method is introspection. |
Psychoanalysis: modification of introspection: analysis of dreams, free associations. Beheviorism: Experiment Gestalt Psychology: Experiment. Descriptive psychology: used introspection, but did not deny other methods. Fr. Soc. School: historical approach. |
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Individualism is the study of consciousness within an individual consciousness. |
Psychoanalysis: the distribution of the results not all Biheviorism: identifying a person and an animal in behavioral acts. Gestalt Psychology: Gestaltles are averaged Descriptive psychology: individualism - peak psychology. Fr. Soc. School: ??????? |
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Atomism is the study of consciousness by exposing it to elements. |
Psychoanalysis: the facts of unconscious life. Bihewicism: behavior can be decomposed on the stimulus and reaction. Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt An indivisible unit. Descriptive psychology: opposed atomism. Fr. Soc. School: studied elements in historical psychology. |
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Genesis of the psyche is exhausted by conscious experience. |
Psychoanalysis: Study of unconscious processes. Beheviorism: the psyche and consciousness are not the subject. Gestalt Psychology: Insight - an unconscious process. Descriptive psychology: creativity - an unconscious process Fr. Soc. School: Prologred thinking is an unsentable process. |
Brief description of the main psychological schools that appeared during the open crisis of psychology.
Psychoanalysis. Z. Freud (1856 - 1939)
Psychoanalysis is the direction of psychological teaching, in the center of the study of which there are unconscious mental processes. Psychoanalysis Freud considered a mental life with dynamic (the inner life of the individual is the result of the collision of the opposite forces), the economic (energy characteristics of the mental life) and the typical (presence of a structure) of the point of view.
Psychoanalysis has two groups of sources:
Philosophical concepts:
Leibniz: the idea of \u200b\u200bvarious degrees of conscious life.
Herbart: "The concept of a threshold of consciousness", according to which new knowledge can exhibit old in the zone below the threshold of consciousness.
Schopenhauer: "Will's concept for life", in which the idea of \u200b\u200bhaving a man of two impulses is developed: sexual and aggressive.
Gartman: "Philosophy of the unconscious" - a book in which all knowledge of the unconscious, the function of the way of life, the preservation of the human race is generalized. Unconscious - incentive for creativity. But in the unconscious there is a "demonic" party.
Nietzsche: led the idea of \u200b\u200bthe will to power, which moves by a person and is expressed in affects.
Psychotherapeutic and psychopathological concepts.
Since the end of the 18th century, attempts to treat mentally ill is being taken.
Mesmer, Charco: Idea of \u200b\u200bmental disorders, attempts by group therapy.
Darwin: "On the mental development of a child" - work in which is described by emotional and sexual development from infancy to adult age.
Kraft Ebinge: 1886 The Book "Sexual Psychopathy", which considered the idea of \u200b\u200bwhether a hundred people manage sexual instinct.
Mol: Introduction of the term "libido" 1887. The book "Children's Sexuality".
Brüer, Sharcot: Dreams used as a method of therapy.
The development of Freud's ideas can be divided into 3 stages:
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Basic provisions and events |
Main works |
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Psychoanalysis as a method for treating neurosis. Development of the first variant of the personality structure: conscious, preliminary, unconscious. "The period of brilliant isolation" due to the theory of pansexualism. The appearance of the "Vienna Mug" (Adler, Jung, Abraham, Jones, etc.) |
"Interpretation of dreams", "psychopathology of everyday life", "wit and its attitude to the unconscious", "three essay theory of sexuality" |
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Psychoanalysis is the doctrine of personality and its development. New identity structure: id, ego, superego. The appearance of the idea of \u200b\u200bLibido, Martido. 1909 - Tournament in America. Recognition of psychoanalysis. Exile from a mug of Adler and Jung. Proposals for the creation of the International Psychoanalytic Association. |
"Five lectures on psychoanalysis", "Analysis of the phobia of one five-year-old boy", "Totem and Tabo", "Leonardo Davinki" |
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Expanding the framework of psychoanalysis. The spread of ideas on the culture and its manifestations is religion, anthropology. The formation of psychoanalysis as a philosophical system. |
"On the other side of the principle of pleasure," "I and it", "Psychology of the Mass and Analysis of the Human I", "Moses and Monotheism", "dissatisfaction with culture". |
Methods of psychoanalysis: catharsis, analysis of dreams, free associations, hypnosis, analysis of jokes, reservations and erroneous actions.
Freud had followers and apostates. Here I am quite a little bit as a reminder.
The apostates criticized Freud's theory and made several innovations:
Egoussens rights, it has its own energy and functions.
The impact of the influence of biological and social factors for the development of the personality in favor of social ones.
Revaluation of the role of children's sexuality and Oedipova complex.
Apostates:
A. Freud: Children's psychoanalysis. Introduces gaming methods of diagnosis and correction, since classical psychoanalysis does not take into account the imperfection of verbalization in children.
K. Jung: The idea of \u200b\u200bcollective unconscious. The idea of \u200b\u200barchetypes. LIBIDO, according to Jung, energy that has different intensity in different ages. The personality of a person is determined on only children's experiences, but also goals for the future. Adding "congenital human experience" in the scope of the unconscious.
A. Adler: a sense of inferiority that is formed by 5 years and determines human behavior. Disadvantages fix the complex of inferiority. Social interest and desire for superiority. Individuality of personality on the structure. A person is inherent "Creative I", which forms it.
K. Horney: basal anxiety, having a reason for a lack of attention from parents. Revaluation towards social factors.
Sullivan: Interpersonal Psychiatry Concept. The decisive roller of the development of the person is played by MLOS, the violation of which leads to neurosis.
E. Fromm: Social Freudism. The concept of "existential contradiction" arising from the breakdown of relations with nature. Product path - recreation of connections with nature and society. But the social condition blocks this path and the person is forced to "run."
V. REYIX: Buliented psychoanalysis. The basis for a healthy person is freely circulating energy. Neurotic individuals direct energy on muscle clips, which leads to the appearance of a "muscle shell".
Heirs:
Olport: rational motives and only neurotics have a decisive role and only neurotics are influenced by emotions. The personality is that inherent to each of us, it is unique. "Proprium" - inherent.
Murray: ID is impulsive trends. In addition to the energy of life and death, it contains a socially desirable impulse-love and empathy. Projection is the main protective mechanism. Tat.
E. Erickson: The concept of "identity crisis", covering the whole life of a person. The development of a person is to overcome conflicts characteristic of each stage.
E. Burn: Transactional analysis. Three EGO - states: parent (control and care), baby (game), adult (control over the outside world). The concept of the script.
J. Lacan: Introduction Linguistics in psychoanalysis. Consideration of the structure from the point of view of the language. Verbal diagnostic methods.
Behaviorism.
Refuses to consider the subjective world of man. The objects proclaims the behavior to which all externally observed reactions of the body on external incentives.
Sources:
Objectivism and mechanism. O. Cont. The truth is just that knowledge that can be observed.
Functionalism. Angel: "Soon the term" consciousness "will leave psychology."
Zoopsychology. J. Leb is the theory of animal behavior based on forced movements. The principle of associative memory is the animal can be taught to react in a certain way to a certain incentive.
1900 - "Labyrinth" W. Smallla
1906 Turnner article "Some preliminary comments on the behavior of the Muravyov"
I. P. Pavlov: Conditional Reflex.
1910 - 8 laboratories on zoopsychology.
1912 - the magazine "The behavior of animals".
V.M. Bekhterev: Objective psychology. Fashionable reflexes. Behavior higher Level It can be explained as a combination of low-level motor reflexes.
E. Torndayk: Problem Box. Exercise Act: The more often the action is used in a situation, more than communication Between the action and the situation. The law effect: any action that appears in the situation is associated with this situation, and when the situation occurs again, the likelihood of this action is high.
Beheviorists:
J. Watson (1878 - 1958):
1913 - a call to study behavior, an informed attack on psychology. Subject: "Stimulus" - "Reaction". Incentives can be simple and complex. Reactions can be explicit and implicit. Methods: observation, testing of reactions, literal records, the method of conditional reflexes (1915). "Psychology as a science of behavior", "Psychological care for a child."
Non-destroyed 30-60 years. E. Tolman, K. Hall, B. Skinner.
E. Tolman: targeted behaviorism. The focus of behavior can be explained in terms of objective behaviorism, that is, any behavior is aimed at target. Experiments with rats made it possible to establish that the rats are formed by cognitive cards that can be inherited. In behavior there is a "intermediate variable" - the body that is not subject to observation, but affects the reaction. The emergence of the term "gestalt signs" - associative connections that are produced during the multiple performance. Cognitive map - Gestalt signs network.
K. Hall: radical behaviorism. Human behavior can be reduced to the language of physics. The organism is a self-sustaining robot from natural materials. Methods: Simple observation, system controlled observation, experimental testing of the hypotheses, hypothetical deductive method.
B. Skinner: The introduction of the term "operant reaction" is the focus of behavior on target. System of promotions and punishment when learning. Over time, Skinner will transfer their development to social life - an air cradle for babies, a training machine. Development of programmed learning.
3. Social behaviorism:
A. Bandura: Studying cognitive processes with the help of an experiment. Indirect reinforcement based on someone else's experience. Social learning is modeling behavior on the example of the behavior of other people. The concept of self-efficiency is a sense of confidence in the competence of solving problems. It may be social and activity. Work with phobias, neurosis.
J. Rotter: Social Research: Assessment of possible positive and negative consequences. Control locus: internal and external.
Gestalt psychology. Understanding consciousness as a dynamic whole, field, each point of which interact with the rest. Unit analysis is Gestalt as a holistic shaped structure.
The philosophical prerequisite of Gestalt psychology is "Critical Realism":
E. Mahh: Analysis of sensations - as a person perceives figures and melodies. Proved that the perception of these objects may be independent of the perception of these elements.
Brentano: Psychology should study the processes or acts of consciousness.
K. Ehrenfencier: identified the quality of the object, which can be explained by simply adding elementary sensations.
Gestalt Psychology as a psychology of perception:
"Fi-phenomenon" - movements that does not exist. 1912 Article "Experimental study of the perception of motion."
1921 - Magazine "Psychological Studies"
The Kofka conducted experiments associated with perception in order to explain the dynamics of the formation of the image.
The principle of isomorphism: the brain can be considered as a dynamic system in which the same elements interact, which are currently active at the moment. GM - Equivalent of the outside world.
Cooller: "Intellect of man-shaped monkeys" 1930. The appearance of the concept of "insight".
Gestalt Psychology as a psychology of personality:
Kurt Levin: 1926 - "Intentions. Will. Needs. ", 1935 -" Dynamic Personality Theory ". Human activity occurs in conditions of interaction between fields that affect the person, forming a hedological space. Facilities are inherent in valence. Levin introduces the concept of "emotional-cognitive representation", implying the alternation of the cycles of the occurrence and removal of voltage. After 30th Levin carries the field theory to group processes. Develops the theory of guidance styles.
B. Zeigarnik: The effect of unfinished action.
Gestalt therapy: F. Pörlz: Individual has the ability to self-regulation. The principle is "here and now." The role of non-verbal in diagnosis. The main procedure is a game that allows you to experiment (the influence of psychodrama). The purpose of therapy is the integration of the personality. Client-centered approach.
Descriptive psychology: ideographic approach.
1894 - V. Dilte "Descriptive Psychology".
Call to abandon the experiment, as this is a natural science method. The subject is a developed person and an internal peace of mind. The main method of the concept of a person and his problems was an understanding. Evaluate subjective experiences and include them in a social context. Human values \u200b\u200bchange throughout life: game, then ideals, then awareness of real values, then much significant values. Psychology Diltea is a vertex psychology, as a person can be known in its higher manifestations - creativity and freedom.
Sprangler: Values \u200b\u200bas an emotional attitude to something. Classification of values:
Theoretical Values \u200b\u200b- Science Field
Economic values \u200b\u200b- material benefits
Aesthetic values \u200b\u200b- self-expression
Social Values \u200b\u200b- Communication
Political values \u200b\u200b- power, influence
Religious values \u200b\u200b- the meaning of life
French Sociological School:
E. Durkheim, Levi-Bullyl.
Man is a dual creature - social and biological. Biological affects human practical activity. Social under the influence of society forms a social part of the psyche, which distinguishes a person from the animal. The Company is considered as a special reality that consists of various opinions, knowledge, that is, from quantitative ideas that are fixed in the language. Historical approach is an analysis of the impact of human development on the formation of his psyche.
Levi-Bullyl: pralogic thinking, peculiar to primitive man. Prelogical thinking is subordinated to the laws of the partition - appreciation, that is, all items similar to among themselves have a common magical force. This type of thinking does not require evidence, it is irrational.
Pralogic thinking is inferior to logical as philogenesis.
The main provisions of cultural-historical theory:
In their works himself hp does not use the term "Cultural and historical theory" For the name of the Holy Concept, you can find a different definition, namely - "Instrumental".
Historical concept L.S. it was called because it is impossible to understand the "became", the mental processes and consciousness available now, and should be considered the history of their development and formationBut at the same time it is development, that is, qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, and not a simple evolution. L.S. tried to consider mental development in all types genezov. However, in the center of his attention was ontogenetic studies of the formation and development of the EPF in the child.
Cultural this concept called because hp It believed that the Consciousness of the Child, the specific features of its PVF formulate in a child as a result of communication with adults, in which there is a mastering of cultural signs of cultural signs. These signs mediate his "lower" (involuntary) PF and thereby lead to the creation of completely new formations in the mind of the child.
Main characteristics PVF:
§ Maybe without a balance reduce to elementary functions
§ have iconic mediating
§ have a social origin
§ Forms are formed
§ conscious and arbitrary
Historically, the emergence of PPE as new forms of human thinking and behavior is associated with the development of work. PVF - product is not biological evolution. They have a social history. The position on the relationship of labor and the highest intellectual functions led to the conclusion about "Psychological guns" which is language. Psychological implements differ from labor tools: if the latter are directed to mastering the processes of nature, then psychological tools act as a means of influencing themselves and, by virtue of this, make mental processes arbitrary and involuntary. The main processes of development of PVF is interiorization. HDPs come from outside, they are "built initially as external forms of behavior and rely on an external sign." The transition from an interpsychic function to intrapsychic occurs in cooperation between the child with other children and with adults. Region affordable child In collaboration got a name next development zones , The area performed independently is an area of \u200b\u200bcurrent development.
Just as a person mastering nature with the help of guns, he mastering his own psyche with the help of a special kind of psychological instruments. Psychological guns are signsThrough which consciousness is built. Vygotsky sees a special sociocultural mediator between the individual and the world.
At the beginning of the 10th Gg XX century. Psychology joined the period of the open crisis, which lasted until the middle of the 30s. Article Vygotsky "The historical meaning of the psychological crisis" is the first attempt to study and scientific explanation of the crisis of psychology from the Marxist positions.
Criteria for the presence of crisis: the collapse of unity of psychologists, the presence of a large number of schools and directions hostile to each other (different terminology, subject, methods, etc.). So external expression of this crisis There was the emergence of new schools and directions. Science was divided into directions, the supporters of which were operated on with different facts and ideas, without accepting each other. Each system (Freudism, behaviorism, gestalticism, personalism) claimed the opening of a new era in psychological science.
Essence of crisis: a crisis methodological (Vygotsky). Questions about methods, basic concepts, interpretations of these concepts, i.e. Methodological problem.
Psychology has formed in independent science at the end of the 19th century, but on the basis of the philosophy of the 18th century (Descartes, Locke). And on this contradiction, psychology arises in the form of introspective psychology, psychology of consciousness.
Psychology of consciousness (basic principles):
introspective interpretation of consciousness;
the principle of sensualism (knowledge begins with the sensation; element of consciousness - feeling);
the principle of atomism (consciousness is dismembered by elements);
the principle of naturalism (the psyche is considered in connection with the physicity - the position of Descartes; psyche as a by-product of the work of the National Assembly);
intellectualism interpretation of consciousness;
you can add the principle of associanism.
Psychology proclaimed itself empirical science based on the fact (experimental study). The experiment leads to the discovery of new facts that conflict with the basic principles of introspective psychology. For example, the discovery of a holistic nature of perception rejects the principle of atomism (gestaltists), the impudent character of thinking is undermined by the fact that the tissue of consciousness is the feeling (undermines of the principle of sensualism) - the Würzburg School; The opening of the unconscious (undermining that the subject is consciousness). Each new discovery refutes the old principle. Each of the directions, pushing out his own discovery offers its explanatory principle.
Logic development of explanatory ideas: First, a private fact appears, the fact is given a certain interpretation, a private explanatory principle arises, which is then inflated on a wider area of \u200b\u200bphenomena, to the sphere of psychology as a whole, and then on broader phenomena until the ideological principle. But as a general psychological principle, no school satisfies the task of explaining the majority of psychological facts accumulated in the field of psychology. (Vygotsky)
Vygotsky observes the striking similarity between evolution of different psychological concepts(Freudism, Reflexology, Gestalticism, Personalism): from private discovery in special discipline to the subsequent spread of their ideas on all psychology and human knowledge in general. This shows the urgent need for general science.
The fact of the crisis in psychologists is evidenced by the fact What psychology realized the need for general science (methodology), but not ready to make it on light. Separate disciplines are trying to replace overall psychology - this is children's psychology, pathopsychology, zoopsychology, etc.
The purpose of crisis : "Agree of heterogeneous data, bring scattered laws, comprehend and test results, clean the methods and basic concepts, lay fundamental principles - thereby build general science».
For V., the creation of a "common science" was the most important task. It is necessary to create it on the basis of the Marxist interpretation of theoretical knowledge, from the principles of reflection and historicism. The abstraction always contains a piece of real reality.
The general science is born at the stage of maturity. Psychology approached the fact that its further movement without general science is impossible. General Science is needed, first of all, because psychology cannot cope with increasing practical tasks; This requires its own logical and methodological infrastructure.
Total science - This is a science that receives material from private scientific disciplines and producing a generalization of this material, which is impossible inside each individual discipline. With the help of fundamental concepts (category) and explanatory principles, general science performs the role of a methodology with respect to a specific empirical study.
B. believes that concepts should be continuously criticized in practice, because Every discovery in science is always the act of criticism of the concept.
Such interaction of concepts and fact forms subject of general science . It can be called methodology in the sense of teaching about the methods, paths, methods of specific scientific knowledge.
The general science adopts this operating concepts, namely common concepts. Thus, it defines the subject and method of any forms of scientific and psychological research.
Methodology of concrete science It is under the influence of philosophy, the subject of this science, the historical scan of its categorical structures.
Crowded Stone Assignments Vygotsky - The idea of \u200b\u200bthe inseparalism of the two ways to study science: logical and historical.
Scientific methodology by historical basis It is possible because the pattern is inherent in the process of knowledge itself. Pattern in changing and developing ideas is due to:
with a common social and cultural subsoil of the era;
with general conditions and laws of scientific knowledge;
With objective requirements of objective reality, which science studies.
Exit from crisis (Vygotsky): creation of general psychology - generalization and systematization of accumulated facts, the formulation of the general explanatory principle and the fact, building the hierarchy of private disciplines and as they relate.
Causes of crisis (via Vygotsky):
Non-eracted methodological foundations and philosophical base. This costs the overall installation of psychology, which determined itself as an empirical science based on experience. Psychology sought to dissociate philosophy. The psychologist comes into principal self-exchanger that laboratory work will help solve his questions. Those. On the one hand, psychologists refuse philosophy, but with others. Parties are based on the philosophical paradigm (Cartesian Lokovskaya Paradigm).
Excessive academism of psychology. Attitude towards applied psychology as something lower and emerging beyond science (contempt for practice).
The struggle of the theory of theory, new facts obtained during the period of intensive development of empirical and applied research in the first 50 years of the existence of psychology as an independent science, increasingly discovered the inconsistency of psychological theory.
At the beginning of the 10ths. Psychology joined the period of the open crisis, which continued until the mid-30s. Like a crisis, which was experiencing natural science during this period, he was an indicator of the growth of science, the development of which leads to the need to change the previous ideas of new knowledge.
The positive content of the crisis was to work on the creation of a new psychological theory, which unfolded both in foreign and in domestic science.
The crisis in psychology coincided with the period of exacerbation of economic and socio-political contradictions in the bourgeois society, due to its transition to imperialism. The growth of world domination was accompanied by qualitative changes in the economy, politics and ideology, the development of the process of capital concentration and domination of monopolies and the financial oligarchy, aggressive foreign policy aimed at the redistribution of colonies and sales markets through imperialist wars, among which the first world War It was the first of the greatest social shocks of the XX century.
Prerequisites (reasons), which caused the emergence of the "open crisis":
1) the complexity and inconsistency of the social situation. Contradiction
Between the person and society were realized as eternal incompatibility
The biological nature of a person with the moral demands of society.
2) understanding of scientists of practical and theoretical
Insolvency of old installations, views and research methods
phenomena and phenomena of science;
3) the intensive development of philosophical ideas, positivism, differential, age psychology, zoopsychology ensured the emergence of new incomparable directions, concepts and views on the subject of psychological science;
4) the development of biology, which changed the idea of \u200b\u200bconsciousness as a closed world of the subject;
5) expansion of the sphere of unknowable through the classical method
introspection of phenomena (animal behavior, children, mentally ill
of people).
In 1910-1930 In psychology, a large number of competing incompatible paradigms were formed, which implemented potentially possible versions of understanding the subject and method of psychology.
Psychology broke up into a number of major directions, each of which was opponent on one of the points of the old psychology of consciousness, putting forward his subject and its research methods. List these directions.
1. Gestalt Psychology
2. Beheviorism
3. Deep psychology
4. French Sociological School
5. Descriptive psychology, etc.
Thanks to the broken crisis, psychology received a number of new independent areas, each of which later actively expanded and gave science many of the most interesting views and concepts, the further development of these psychological schools was in the direction of interaction with each other.
I. Causes of crisis
II. Main flowes
1) structuralism
2) Würzburg School
3) functionalism
4) Beheviorism
5) Gestalt psychology
6) The theory of "Fields" Kurt Levin
7) psychoanalysis (deep psychology)
8) Humanistic psychology
III. Consequences of split
I. Causes of the crisis.
The more successful the empirical work was in psychology, sharply expanding the field of studied psychology of phenomena, the more apparently the inconsistency of its versions of consciousness as a closed world of the subject, visible to him alone thanks to the trained introspection under the control of the experimenter's instruction. The major successes of the new biology radically changed the views on all the vital functions of the body, including mental.
Perception and memory, skills and thinking, installation and feelings are now interpreted as a kind of "tools", allowing the body to effectively "wonder" in life situations. It collapsed the idea of \u200b\u200bconsciousness as a special closed world, isolated island of the Spirit. At the same time, the new biology sent to the study of the psyche in terms of its development. Thus, the zone of objects of objects inaccessible to introspective analysis (the behavior of animals, children, mentally ill) was radically expanded. The collapse of the initial ideas about the subject and methods of psychology became increasingly obvious.
Deep transformations experienced a category of psychology. We will remind about its main blocks: mental image, mental effect, mental attitude, motive, personality. At the dawn of scientific psychology, as we remember, the initial element of the psyche considered the testimony of the senses - sensations. Now, look at consciousness as a device from atoms - sensations - lost a scientific loan.
It has been proven that mental images are integrity, which only artificially can be divided into elements. These integrity were denoted by the German term "Gestalt" (form, structure) and under this name included in the scientific glossary of psychology. The direction of the Gestalt the importance of the main "unity" of consciousness was established under the name of Gestalt psychology.
As for mental action, its categorical status has changed. In the previous period, it belonged to the category of internal, spiritual acts of the subject. However, success in applying an objective method to study the relationship between the organism and the environment proved that the psyche area also includes an external bodily effect. Appeared powerful scientific school, erected him in the subject of psychology. Accordingly, the direction that chooses this path on the basis of the English word "Bihevior" (behavior), performed under bicheaviorism.
Another sphere that opened psychology gave consciousness instead of the primary secondary meaning. The scope of unconscious impositions (motifs) was decisive for mental life, which move the behavior and determine the originality of the complex dynamics and the structure of the individual. The school, which was acquired by the school whose leader was recognized by Z. Freud, and the direction as a whole (with many branches) was called psychoanalysis.
French researchers focused on analyzing mental relations between people. In the works of a number of German psychologists, the topic of personal inclusion in the cultural value system was performed. A special innovative role in the history of world psychological thought was played by the doctrine of behavior in his special, which arose on the basis of Russian culture.
II. Main flowes
As a result of the crisis, such flows appeared:
1 structuralism.
Consider, first of all, the so-called structural school is a direct heiress of the direction, the leader of which was V. Wondt. Its representatives called themselves structuralists, as they considered the main task of psychology experimental study of the structure of consciousness. The concept of the structure involves the elements and their connection, so the efforts of the school were aimed at the search for the initial ingredients of the psyche (identified with consciousness) and the methods of their structuring. It was a wundov idea reflecting the influence of mechanistic natural science.
With the collapse of the World of Wanda, the sunset of his school came. The nursery was empty, where the experimental methods of kettell and behterev, Henri and spirmen, fastening and Münsterberg were once mastered. Many of the disciples, losing faith in the idea of \u200b\u200bWundt, were disappointed in his talent.
2. Würzburg School
At the beginning of the 20th century, dozens of laboratories of experimental psychology operated in various universities of the world. Only in the United States there were over forty. Their subject was different: analysis of sensations, psychophysics, psychometry, an associative experiment. The work was carried out with great zeal, but significantly new facts and ideas were not born.
V. Jems paid attention to the fact that the results of a huge number of experiments do not correspond to the invested efforts. But on this monotonous background, several publications in the journal "Archive of General Psychology" flashed, which, as it turned out later, influenced the progress of science not to a lesser extent than Foliants of Wundt and Titchener. These publications proceeded from the group of young experimenters who were in mind with Professor Oswald Culpe (1862-1915) in Würzburg (Bavaria). Professor, Native of Latvia (part of Russia), was a soft, benevolent, sociable person with broad humanitarian interests. After studying the wanda, he became his assistant.
Külpe's fame brought the "Essay of Psychology" (1883), where the ideas close to Vundovsky were set out. But soon he, heading the laboratory in Würzburg, spoke out against his teacher. The experiments carried out in this laboratory in this laboratory were for the first decade of the 20th century the most significant event in the experimental study of the human psyche.
In the set of experimental schemes of the Würzburg laboratory at first, as if nothing remarkable was not. The thresholds of sensitivity were determined, the response time was measured, the widespread associative experiment was carried out after Halton and Ebbighauz.
Karl Bühler (1879-1963) worked in Würzburg in 1907-1909. He introduced a new orientation in the experimental practice of the school, which gave rise to the most acute criticism on the part of Wundt. The technique was that there was a difficult problem before the subject, it was supposed to, without using a chronoscope, it is possible to more carefully describe what happens in his mind in the decision process. In historical literature, it is expressed that "the Bühler, more than anyone else, made it clear that there are data that is not sensory."
Already after the departure of Culpe from Würzburg (first in Bonn, and then to Munich), the process of thinking studied Otto Zelts (1881-1944?). It owns the merit of experimental analysis of the dependence of this process from the structure of the problem being solved. The potion introduced the concept of an "anti-prior scheme", which enriched the former data on the role of the installation and task. The main works of potion- "On the law of an orderly movement of thought" (1913), "To the psychology of productive thinking and mistakes" (1922), "The law of productive and reproductive spiritual activities" (1924). Zelts died in the Nazi concentration camp.
The traditions of experimental study of thinking created by the Würzburg school were developed by other researchers, they did not belong to it.
Strictly speaking, the beginning of the crisis can be dated the beginning of the development of psychology as experimental science. Borders: Third quarter of 70s. 19th century - The first decade of 20V. The more successful in psychology, the introduction of an experiment was in psychology than the area of \u200b\u200bphenomena studied by it was extensive, the more apparent it became that not consciousness is the subject of psychological science, and not introspection - its main method. Thus, the crisis was centered around the problem of consciousness and appeared the result of the development of psychology as a science of consciousness.
At the beginning of the 10ths. 20 V. Psychology joined the second period of crisis - the actual period of the "open crisis", which lasted until the mid-30s. 20 V. And it was associated with the emergence of new theoretical directions of psychology that came to the change of associationan wandov psychology and declared themselves as new generallyological theories .. These are areas of psychological thought, like behaviorism, psychoanalysis, gestalt-psychology, French sociological school, understanding (descriptive) psychology. Each of these directions opposed the main provisions of traditional psychology, the foundations of which were laid back at 17 in. Descartes and Locke and which kept its most essential traits for 18-19 centuries.
Thus, the next one, the third period of crisis, inevitably occurred. It is characterized by a decline of the directions of the open crisis period, the mixing of some directions with other, blurring of clear boundaries between them, the emergence of new psychological concepts, such as, for example, existential, or "humanistic", psychology (K. Rogers, A. Olport) , Cognitive psychology (W. Nouser, N. Lindsay, D. Norman), etc. This period begins with the mid-30s. Our century and continues to the present. Its characteristic feature is the lack of a common psychological theory and doubt about the opportunity to create it ever.
The situation when the theory began to significantly lag in its explanation of these psychological research, and sometimes it turned out and simply inadequate to them led to a situation of crisis in psychology. According to HP Vygotsky, it was the crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology and he was "an expression of the fact that psychology as a science in his practical promotion forward in the light of the requirements for her practice, the possibilities allowed by the methodological grounds on which psychology was started at the end of 18 - early 19th century. "
The crisis in psychology coincided with the period of exacerbation of economic and socio-political contradictions in the bourgeois society, due to its transition to imperialism. The growth of production was accompanied by qualitative changes in the economy, policies and ideology, the development of the process of capital concentration and domination of monopolies and the financial oligarchy, aggressive foreign policy aimed at the redistribution of colonies and markets of sales through imperialist wars, among which World War II 1914-1918. It was the first of the greatest social shocks of the 20th century.
Here in such conditions of the public situation and the situation in the science and philosophy, psychology in the early 10th year. XX century Entered during the open crisis. Its source was the requests of practice, the need to respond to which led both to the awareness of the insufficiency of the former theoretical views developed by the empirical introspective association psychology and to the emergence of new directions in research research and new concepts. As in natural science, the open crisis in psychology was evidence of the development of this science.
Transformation of ideas about nature, on laws in the development of psyche and consciousness based on and as a result powerful development actually psychological experiment, the use of psychological knowledge to various areas of science and practice - medical, pedagogical, field of production, transport, trade, military affairs, etc., the development of objective research in children's psychology and zoopsychology contributed to the emergence of a number of new directions that set their task a change in ideas about theoretical foundations psychological science.
Thus, it is possible to talk about three groups of factors and conditions, in the context of which the crisis of psychology originated and developed and developed the historical, situation in science and philosophy and the situation in the most psychological science.
During this period, many new directions appeared. Beheviorism arose in the United States and was a reaction to the structuralism of V. Wundt and E. Titchener and American functionalism. The founder of J. Watson. He criticized psychology for subjectivism and practical uselessness. The subject of behaviorism, he proclaimed the study of behavior with an objective way and to serve as practice. As scientific prerequisites, J. Watson called the study on animal psychology, especially E.Turnike, as well as school of objective psychology. Gestalt Psychology is one of the most influential and interesting directions of the period of the open crisis, was a reaction against the atomism and the mechanism of all types of associative psychology. Gestalt Psychology was the most productive solution to solve the integrity problem in the German - paternal (German and Austrian) psychology, as well as the philosophy of the late 19th - early 19 V. Deep psychology - put forward an idea of \u200b\u200bthe independence of the psyche from consciousness and tried to substantiate the real existence of this independent psyche and explore it. Central psychological flow of deep psychology - psychoanalysis Z. Freud. Classical deep psychology also includes the concepts of individual psychology A. Adler and analytical psychology K. Jung. In psychological science, the question of the social nature of human consciousness was specifically supplied by the French sociological school. The founder of the school was E. Dürkheim, who, studying the domestic right in backward peoples, created the concept of primitive thinking. His ideas developed L. Levi-Bruhl. To this school adjoined some time J. Piaget. It belonged to M. Galbvaks, Sh. Blondez. Descriptive psychology. During the open crisis, the German philosopher V. Dieltee, the founder of the "philosophy of life", declared a new approach to the study of the spiritual world of man. He made criticizing academic philosophical schools with claims to a new worldview, based on the lifetime itself, of this single reality, comprehended by creative instincts and ingenious intuition.
The emergence of Soviet psychology: the theory of installation, behavioral directions, cultural and historical theory, theory of activity.
