The polypeptide molecule consists of 20 residues of molecules. Molecular Biology Tasks

Organic acids containing one or more amino group. Are the main structural units of protein molecules, determine their biological specificity and food value. Violation of the exchange of amino acids is the cause of many diseases. Man proteins consist of 20 different amino acids. Amino acids are divided into replaceable - can be synthesized in the body from other amino acids or organic compounds, and indispensable - cannot be synthesized in the body and for proper protein metabolism and maintaining the livelihoods of the body must come with food in the required quantity. For a person, indispensable amino acids are: tryptophan, phenylalanine, lysine, threonine, valine, leucine, methionine and isoleucine. Separate amino acids are used as medicinal products.

A person, as well as any living being, consists of inorganic and organic compounds, which include proteins consisting of amino acids, fats and carbohydrates. Also, the human body is a complex self-regulating biological system, which is based on the functioning of which the biochemical processes are fully metabolic needs. Amino acids are part of proteins that take part not only in the formation of tissues, but also included in enzymes, hormones and neurotransmitters - basic compounds that ensure the regulation of most biological processes. Unfortunately, the body is not able to independently synthesize all the necessary amino acids. In this regard, for normal work The structures of the body requires both the timely intake of the necessary nutrients from the outside and their synthesis from the available substrates.

Amino acids

Amino acids are called biologically important organic substances, containing both amino (-nh2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups connected by a carbon atom. However, the properties of amino acids are more determined by the radical that can vary widely. Currently, about 500 connections of this class are known.

In 1806, the French chemists Louis Nicolas Voclana and Pierre Savan Robika first allocated Asparagin. All 20 amino acids that are used in living organisms were opened by 1935, when William Cumming Ros, who also allocated an indispensable one, established minimum daily norms for a person.

The child's body is intensively developing, in connection with which there are enormous nutrients in nutrients, the lack of which can lead to serious violations. Thus, for the first year of life, the mass of the child is raised, the maturation of immune, nervous and other organism systems occurs. In this regard, along with a decrease in physical strength, functional disorders, severe mental disorders may be observed, which is not always possible when replenishing the existing deficit. An example can serve a quashiorecore - a disease developing as a result of amino acid deficiency in the diet at which ascites and severe dystrophy are observed. In most cases, this disease develops in children from poor areas of Africa as a result of regular nutrition food containing little proteins.

Breastfeeding, in most cases, allows you to satisfy the plastic and metabolic needs of the body in the first six months of life, however, it is necessary to introduce the admission of dust - in addition to maternal milk, the child additionally gets an easily dismantled, full of vitamins, food.

The composition of food proteins contain 20 amino acids, but among them there are irreplaceable, the deficit of which the body is not able to fill on their own, by synthesis, and therefore their receipt is required during nutrition. An indispensable amino acids in children include:

Tryptophan

Normally requires 22 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (with a lack of heavy muscle atrophy develops, growth slows down);

Normally requires 150 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (needed for normal growth and operation of the hematopoietic system);

Metionine

Normally requires 70 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (needed to ensure detoxification of the liver, work nervous system, takes an active part in the exchange of fats and phospholipids);

Normally, the daily need is 93 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (with a lack of influence on the psyche, reducing the level of serotonin);

Normally, 60 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (with a lack there is a slowdown in metabolic processes, which is accompanied by lethargy, weakness, drowsiness);

Normally requires 150 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (with lack of infants, the metabolism of carbohydrates deteriorates, which is accompanied by hypoglycemia);

Isoleucine

Normally, 90 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (if there is an imbalance in the work. thyroid gland, it makes it difficult for ammonia from the body, which may cause severe poisoning);

Phenylalanine

Normally requires 90 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (it is necessary for the work of the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands of the child);

GISTIDIN.

Normally requires 32 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (affects blood formation);

Normally, the need is 10 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (takes part in a huge number of important metabolic processes).

In addition, even with full nutrition, there may be diseases in childhood, which are based on a violation of the amino acid balance. Most frequent diseasesunder which the change in the metabolism of amino acids is observed, are:

Humenocyduria

With this pathology, an excess amount of amino acids with urine is distinguished, which may occur both in the pathology of the kidneys and violations of the amino acid metabolism.

Phenylketonuria

It is hereditary enzymopathy, in which the exchange of phenylalanine is disturbed with the accumulation of products of its decay, which have a toxic effect on the human brain, which in most cases becomes the cause of oligophrenia.

Alkaptonuria

It is hereditary enzymopathy, in which there is no enzyme responsible for tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism, which leads to the accumulation of homogenic acid and is manifested by urine oxidation in a dark brown color in the air. At a later age, arthropathy develops and change the color of the cartilage sink.

Albinism

It is a hereditary disease, which is based on a violation of the exchange of aromatic amino acids, which leads to insufficient synthesis of melanin, giving the skin and iris dark color, the main purpose of which is to protect against excess solar radiation.

Harton's disease

It is a very rare hereditary disease in which tripotophan exchange is violated, which leads to cerebelchkova ataxia and skin changes.

It is a rare hereditary disease in which the enzyme block causes an excess synthesis of oxalic acid, which leads to the formation of kidney stones, deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in the brain, spleen, lymphoid fabric.

Custinia

It is a hereditary disease in which cystine exchange is violated with the subsequent accumulation of crystals in the reticuloendothelial system, which is accompanied by an increase in spleen, liver, excicosis, hyperthermia, phosphate-diabetes, rickets and the development of severe nephropathy.

Homocystinuria

It is a hereditary disease in which methabolism of methionine and homocysteine \u200b\u200bis disturbed, which is accompanied by such lesions as oligophrenia of various degrees of severity and expopy of crustal.

As a rule, with timely identification of the disease, in some cases it is possible to correlate exchange violations as by means of substitution therapy and compliance with a strict diet. If the changes in the human body can not reveal in a timely manner, then there is a high probability of developing heavy complications, up to death.

The organism in adults is normal in a state of equilibrium between the processes of anabolism and catabolism. As a rule, the daily need for amino acids in adults is less pronounced, compared with children, but even adults can develop heavy disorders with an infallible diet.

In adults, the body also needs an indispensable amino acids when nutrition. Thus, with a deficiency:

valina - the muscle metabolism and reparation of damaged tissues deteriorates;

leucine - breaks: reparation of bones, leather, muscles, reduced glucose in blood plasma, synthesis of somatotropic hormone;

isoleucine - the synthesis of hemoglobin and the control of the glucose level is worse, endurance is reduced;

treonin - an imbalance in the synthesis of collagen and elastin, protein and fat exchange, liver work, and is often developing immunodeficiency states;

methionine - there is a decrease in the effectiveness of metabolic processes in the liver, the risk of atherosclerosis progression increases, toxicosis is aggravated during pregnancy;

tryptophan - the dream deteriorates, the mood changes, the appetite decreases, the growth of growth hormone, the sensitivity to nicotine increases;

lysine - synthesis is broken large number Enzymes, hormones, the metabolic processes in bone tissue are worsening, the effectiveness of calcium absorption decreases, a humoral immune response is reduced, the reparation of tissues is reduced, muscle strength and muscle mass are reduced, problems with erection and libido arise, the risk of atherosclerosis progression arises;

phenylalanine - a decrease in nociceptive sensitivity occurs, memory deteriorates;

arginine - the work of the cell component is worsening immune systemThe detoxification function of the liver deteriorates, the potency is reduced, the blood pressure increases, the level of cholesterol in the blood increases, hypercoagulation occurs, there are dysmetabolic changes in muscle and connective tissues;

histidine - the intensity of the flow of a large number of biochemical reactions, growth and restoration of tissues, deterioration of the joint function of the joints.

IN modern world People often begin to get fascinated by vegetarianism, which can cause a lack of essential amino acids in the diet. However, with a competent selection of products, it is possible to obtain all substances necessary for full-fledged livelihoods.

Also, more widespread the passion for sports. As a rule, after an intensive workout, not only a large consumption of fats and carbohydrates occurs, but also significantly increases the need for amino acids, which is associated with anabolic processes in muscle tissue.

The reason for the development of a lack of amino acids in the body with their normal content in the diet may become a disruption of digestion, due to both the disadvantage of digestive enzymes and absorption in the small intestine. The emergence of such states may be the result of acute pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis and extensive resection of the small intestine.

To compensate for the existing disorders, treatment is carried out over the underlying disease, conducting substitution therapy and, in severe cases, parenteral nutrition.

Currently, in developed countries, the lack of amino acids in the body due to their shortage in food products is practically not found. Exception is starvation and vegetarianism, when the probability of alimentary insufficiency increases significantly. In this regard, when identifying the deficit of necessary amino acids, it should be performed first of all about other pathological processes.

With age, the human body undergo serious changes associated with a decrease in the functional activity of many systems, which significantly reduces compensatory capabilities when interacting with the external environment. The basis of these changes is the restructuring of metabolism associated with a decrease in the activity of some enzymes consisting of amino acids. In the future, this leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of biological oxidation, which disrupts oxygen consumption by tissues, increases the level of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood plasma. Also, it is often noted a change in the water-salt metabolism as a result of an increase in cell permeability.

Also, with age, the efficiency of the digestive system is deteriorating, which is manifested by a decrease in the release of digestive enzymes in the stomach, intestines, pancreas, a violation of the absorption of digested substances - amino acids, mono- and disaccharides, fat molecules. In addition, the acidity of the gastric juice is reduced, the bile outflow is disturbed, the intestinal motility changes, which causes constipation. The activity of the endocrine system organs occurs, which affects the intensity of the exchange. The relationship between anabolic and catabolic processes changes, which is accompanied by a decrease in the mass of muscle and bone tissues.

In this regard, the construction of a proper edible diet in the elderly is an important task. So, according to the studies conducted, more than ¾ older people eat incorrectly, which, as a rule, seriously affects human health.

The role of amino acids in the body

Amino acids in the human body, in most cases, are included in the peptides during transcription and broadcast. Peptides are polymers consisting of amino acids that are monomers. In this regard, amino acids can be considered a structural material by which genetic information is implemented.

Amino acids in the human body, as a rule, are in functionality closely related to:

peptides with hormone activity (oxytocin, vasopressin, rillation hormones of hypothalamus, melanocystimulating hormones, glucagon and other active substances);

peptides regulating digestive processes (gastrine, cholecystokinin, vazo interstacious peptide, gastric inhibitory peptide and other active substances);

peptides regulating the tone of vessels and blood pressure (bradykinin, kalidine, angiotension III);

peptides carrying out the regulation of appetite (leptin, neuropeptide y, small-dochetimulating hormone, endorphins);

peptides possessing an analgesic effect (enkephalins, endorphins);

peptides participating in the regulation of higher nervous activity (sleep, wakefulness, memory, emotions), which are based on biochemical processes;

nitrogen oxide - a mediator that regulates the tone of vessels and obtained from arginine;

peptides participating in the work of the immune system (lying at the basis of the humoral component of immunity);

nucleotides that are synthesized from aspartate, glycine and glutamate.

Thus, in the human body, amino acids play an important role and their drawback can seriously affect many, sometimes vital, biochemical reactions.

The formula of amino acid molecules - H2NCHRCOOH. In its composition, carboxyl and amino groups can be distinguished, which differ in radicals (R). And, although in nature there are a large number of compounds with a similar structure, in the genetic code there are information only about 20 amino acids involved in a person in the synthesis of proteins, which are the second most prevalence, after water, muscle components, cells and most other tissues. Nine of twenty amino acids are L - stereoisomers, which are involved in the vital activity of the human body.

Also in the synthesis of proteins in rare cases, I can take part in stereoisomers, which are observed in bacteria and some antibiotics, which normally do not participate in biochemical reactions human organism. Also d - amino acids are often found in the synthesis of peptides generated without the participation of ribosomes in some fungi and bacteria.

Thus, people do not use the entire range of amino acids existing in the world, while those connections that are still used can be involved in the lives of other living beings. As a rule, when preserving a qualitative composition, the spatial characteristics of these compounds have a significant impact on the properties of amino acids.

Communication between amino acid and DNA

In order to trace, as associated amino acids and DNA, it should be understood in the processes of the implementation of hereditary information by transcription and broadcast. In most pronicotes and eukaryotes (the exceptions are prions) storing information about the structure of the body and its functions is carried out using nucleic acids - high molecular weight connections with a strict sequence of monomers. In the future, nucleic acids are inherited by subsidiaries, which, thus, through a certain sequence of nucleotides, the amino acids and their sequence in all proteins (both structural and enzymes, hormones and neurotransmitters) are determined.

The main process that allows you to implement the information laid in the genetic code is the transcription - a complex process, during which complementary copying of data from the DNA circuit on the RNA circuit simultaneously with the latter synthesis. As a rule, RNA carries information only about a particular protein and the chain has a much smaller length. At the same time, DNA make up the basis of chromosomes that contain data on all the variety of organism proteins. Thus, DNA and amino acids are not directly connected.

However, for the implementation of information obtained during the transcription process, another process is needed - broadcasts, which occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. Also in this process, ribosomes are involved - protein structures that recognize nucleotide in RNA. The amino acid corresponding to interpreted information is delivered by the TRNA to the growing protein chain, where it is included in the protein. In the transmission process, three stages are distinguished:

• initiation (Ribosoma learns the starting codon, which becomes an impetus for the synthesis);
• elongation (protein chain synthesis process);
• termination (cessation of synthesis after a meeting with stop codon).

Communication between nucleotide and amino acid

Nucleotide and amino acid are biologically linked by nature through codon, which is called a certain sequence of nucleotide residues in DNA or RNA. Depending on the order of nucleotides in the Code of RNA, the protein chain is assembling on ribosomes. Thus, in the human body, amino acids and DNA are associated not directly, but by means of RNA.

The codon consists of three nucleotides. This determines the existence of 64 possible variations, of which 3 options encode the stop codons (determine the disconnect of the synthesized protein chain), while the remaining 61 variants of the sequences of nucleotides are encoded by amino acids. Deciphering existing codons was completed in 1966. It is known that a person is encoded only 20 amino acids that are part of DNA.

The conversion reactions of amino acids can be associated both with a change in the qualitative composition, by attaching or cleaving certain atoms and with a change in the spatial structure, which leads to a change in the qualities of the resulting substance. This process is called raceemization, which makes it possible to obtain from L-amino acids D - amino acids, which are represented by spatially-mirror molecules. An example of changing the properties of the obtained elements can serve as an amino acid alanine, the L-form of which has a bitter taste, while the D-alanine has a sweet.

The reactions and properties of amino acids depend on the formula of molecules and are determined:

• amino group (-NH2);
• carboxyGroup (-COOH);
• radical (R).

However, the most important biological property of amino acids is to participate in the formation of peptide bonds in the formation of protein molecules.

Human activity is closely conjugate with the processes of anabolism and catabolism.

When anabolism

Analybly is called a set of biochemical processes, during which the formation and updating of tissues, cells and various connections occurs. An example of an anabolism reaction can also form new proteins, hormones, fat and glycogen.

The most important role of anabolism in the exchange of amino acids is the formation of protein molecules. Anabizm processes prevail in children and young people, which is associated with the intensive development of the body. Externally, this is manifested by an increase in muscle mass, growth, strength.

When catabolism

Catabolism is called a set of processes, which are based on the destruction of the compounds. An example of catabolism can serve as the process of oxidation, accompanied by energy emissions, as well as a plurality of reactions, as a result of which several simple from one complex substance is obtained.

The influence of glucocorticoids (adrenal hormones) affect the catabolism (adrenal hormones), under the influence of which proteins are decomposed on the amino acids, while the processes of anabolism prevail in carbohydrate exchange, which leads to the formation of glycogen and fats.

Also, in conditions of lack of energy obtained by decaying fats or, proteins can be spent on the synthesis of ATP. The amino acids during decay are isolated nitrogen compounds, which in the form of ammonia can have a toxic effect on the nervous system.

Depending on the products of the decomposition of amino acids, allocate:

• gluphic (glycine, alanine, valine, proline, serine, threonine, cysteine, methionine, aspartate, asparagin, glutamate, glutamine, arginine, gistidine);
• ketogenic (leucine, lysine);
• gluco-ketogenic (isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan).

Gluccogenic

In the degradation of glucuine amino acids, there is no increase in the level of ketone bodies, while the metabolites obtained (pyruvate, A-ketoglutarate, succinyl - cola, fumarate, oxaloacetate) take an active part in glukegenesis.

Ketogenic

Products of degradation of ketogenic amino acids are Acetyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA, under which there is an increase in the level of ketone bodies. In the future, their transformation into fatty compounds occurs.

Gluco-ketogenic

When decaying gluco-ketogenic compounds, it is equal to equal degree of compounds of both species.

The study of the properties of amino acids is engaged in chemistry - the area of \u200b\u200bknowledge of substances, their structure, composition, transformations. Thanks to this science, amino acids were not only open, but also their basic properties were studied.

Amino acids and chemistry are closely connected in the industry. They found the greatest application in the food industry, where they are widely used in both additives for animal food (as a rule, implies an indispensable amino acids necessary for the growth and development of living beings).

Also in the food industry, amino acids are widely used as flavoring additives. So, glutamate has a property to strengthen the taste, while aspartame is used as a low-calorie sweetener.

Significant successes in solving problems agriculture also provided chemistry. Amino acids have a chelating ability (binding metals with the formation of complex complexes), which is used to facilitate the delivery of minerals in plants and prevent chlorosis - plant disease associated with violation of photosynthesis processes due to reduction in chlorophyll content in the leaves.

The industry is widely used amino acids in the composition of medicinal and cosmetics. The greatest distribution was obtained by 5-hydroxytriptophan, used for experimental treatment of depression, L-dihydroxyphenylalanine for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, and many other drugs.

Recently, studies related to reducing pollution are becoming more and more ambient. In this regard, more and more interest is the use of biodegradable industrial materials - for example, plastics, the use of which can significantly improve the environmental situation.

Formula of amino acid molecules

The formula of the amino acid molecules is presented with H2NCHRCOOH and is the main line of these organic compounds. If the structure change occurs in which the amino group or carboxy group is eliminated, the connection class changes, and it cannot be considered an amino acid.

At the same time, if the radical (R) changes, the formula of the amino acid molecules remains unchanged. In connection with which the compound class is maintained, but they can significantly change chemical propertiesassociated with the characteristics of a particular radical (hydro or lipophilic, positive or negatively charged).

As combined amino acids in the protein molecule

The main in the body of living creatures by the biological function of amino acids is the formation of protein molecules, which in eukaryotov is carried out due to transcription and broadcast processes. The processes associated with the proteinosynthetic function can be observed both in the process of the growth of the body, carrying out plastic functions and occur in response to external or internal changes.

The inclusion of amino acids into the protein molecule is carried out on ribosomes, thanks to the broadcast. This process includes delivery and a compound of amino acids with each other by the formation of peptide communications after the transpeptidation reaction, which is accompanied by the transition of GTF in GDF (loss of one phosphate bond).

Peptide bond connecting amino acids in the protein molecule occurs when the alpha - amino acid interaction (-NH2) interacts with one amino acid with an alpha carboxyl group (-son) of another amino acid. The by-product of this reaction also becomes the release of water. The order of amino acids and their number in proteins determines their properties.

To determine the presence of peptide communications, a buret reaction can be carried out.

The properties of amino acids, depending on the composition of the radical, can vary widely. This affects not only on the characteristics of amino acids, but also on the structure and biological functions of the protein. Depending on the qualities of the qualities, physical and chemical properties are distinguished.

So, according to the available data in chemistry, amino acids - crystalline substances that have high solubility in water and poorly in organic solvents. Also for these substances is characterized by a high melting point and, in most cases, sweet taste. As a rule, physical characteristics are interested in people for using amino acids in production.

The chemical properties of amino acids are higher than the chemical properties. As is known, the amino groups have basic properties, while carboxy groups are acidic. In accordance with the ratio of these groups as part of radicals, amino acids are divided into:

• neutral (as a rule, with aliphatic radicals);
• acidic (carboxygroups dominate) - aspartic and glutamic acid;
• basic (amino groups dominate) - Arginine, Gistidin and Lizin.

Also, as a rule, amino acids are involved in the reactions associated with amino and carboxygroups.

Reactions with amino group include:

interaction with acids, which is due to the formation of ammonium salts;

Reactions with carboxygroup include:

• saline formation when interacting with alkalis;
• the formation of esters when interacting with alcohols.

Also, a deamination reaction can occur in the liver, which leads to the formation of ammonia and fatty, oxide or ketok acids. It is also possible transministration - the reaction at which the nitrogen atom is transferred without the formation of ammonia.

Also, due to the presence of a carboxy group, a decarboxylation reaction is possible, at which carbon dioxide and amine are formed.

Amino acid classes

You can highlight the amino acid classes by:

• features of radicals;
• directions of biosynthesis;
• opportunities for self-reproduction in the body.

Depending on the structure of the radical, the amino acid classes are distinguished:

• in polarity (polar, non-polar and aromatic);
• in chirality (L- and D-stereoisomers);
• by acidity (neutral, acidic, basic).

Amino acids containing radicals

Most amino acids relate to radicals containing. The exception is glycine, the formula of which NH2Ch2COOH.

Depending on the composition of the amino acid radical, which determines the ability to interact with water, is distinguished:

• non-polar;
• polar;
• aromatic;
• with having a negative charge R-groups;
• with positive charging R-groups.

Unpolar can be attributed to:

• glycine (instead of radical - hydrogen atom);
• alanine;
• valin;
• isoleucine;
• leucine;
• proline.

To polar (at pH \u003d 7, the charge of molecules is neutral)

• serine;
• threonine;
• cysteine;
• methionine;
• asparagin;
• glutamine.

To aromatic (which have an aromatic ring, belong to):

• phenylalanine;
• tryptophan;
• tyrosine.

Amino acids containing a negatively charged R-group are presented:

• asparaginic acid;
• glutamic acid.

Amino acids containing a positively charged R-groups are presented:

• lysine;
• arginine;
• gistidine.

According to functional groups

According to the functional features of the radical, the amino acid classes can be distinguished:

• aliphatic (monoaminocarbonic, oxy monoaminocarbonic, monoaminodicarbonic, amides monoaminocarbonic, diaminonocarbonic, sulfur-containing);
• aromatic;
• heterocyclic;
• imino acids.

Depending on the possibilities of the body to independent synthesis of amino acids, they are divided into:

• indispensable;
• replaceable.

Indispensable amino acids

An indispensable amino acids in the body is not possible to reproduce independently (as a rule, due to the lack of necessary enzymes), which requires their regular entry with food. However, the units for replaceable and indispensable exist features. So, for tyrosine synthesis, which in most cases is considered to be a replaceable compound, a sufficient amount of phenylalanine is necessary. In people with phenylketonuria, tyrosine is normally not synthesized in the required quantity, which is due to side effects with a sufficient amount of substrate.

Also, the relatively indispensable amino acids include arginine and histidine, the possibilities for the products of which the human body is limited.

In almost all mammals, the class of essential amino acids whose synthesis is difficult due to the biological characteristics of the body is presented:

• valin;
• isoleucine;
• leucine;
• threonine;
• methionine;
• lysine;
• phenylalanine;
• tryptophan.

Replaceable amino acids

DNA has information about 20 amino acids in the form of codons. Their decoding occurs on ribosomes (when proteins synthesis occurs). Eight amino acids are indispensable, and twelve - replace. As a rule, replaceable amino acids have the ability to form in several ways, by several transformations from the same compounds, which allows them to divide into families:

• aspartate (from which the synthesis of aspartate, asparagin, threonine, isoleucine, methionine is carried out;
• glutamate (from which the synthesis of glutamate, glutamine, arginine is carried out. Proline);
• piruvata (from which the synthesis of alanine, valine, leucine is carried out);
• serine (from which serine synthesis, cysteine, glycine);
• pentoses (of which is carried out by the synthesis of histidine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan).

It is important to receive a person with the nutrition of amino acids as replaceable and indispensable, because their deficit can cause severe complications for health. After eating food, chewing and exposure to her digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract, in the intestine there is absorption available to absorb simple substances - amino acids, monosaccharides, monoglycerides and fatty acids, after which they fall into and delivered to the liver, where transformations are subjected.

There they are spent on:

• plastic processes whose goal is the formation of new fabrics;
• the formation of spares (glycogen, fats);
• combustion obtained when digesting glucose (after delivery to tissue with blood) with energy.

Depending on the amino acids contained in food, proteins are distinguished:

• native - are full, due to the fact that they contain a complete set of twenty amino acids. To food containing these proteins include meat, fish, seafood, bird, eggs and cheese;
• not native - are not full, because there are no amino acids for the full life of a person. These compounds prevail in the product: soy, legumes, nuts, row and vegetables.

Particular attention is paid to legumes (beans, lentils, peas) and products with soybean content (meat substitutes), which are close in composition to animal proteins, as they include almost all the necessary substances, especially amino acids. Most legumes and soy products lack a number of amino acids (most often metionine and cysteine), so you need to consider this fact and refrain from prolonged monotonous nutrition.

Live creatures are needed in essential amino acids, the most complete amount of which is observed in native proteins. A healthy adult person requires the use of all essential amino acids, the volume of which in the food used should be about 20% (which is more than 20 grams, if the daily rate of the protein is 95-110 grams). In children, due to increased needs in native protein, its share in the diet should increase.

A significant impact on the admission to the organism of proteins obtained with food has a frequent visit to fast food restaurants. As a rule, the products used in such establishments are characterized by a large number of useful carbohydrates and fats at a low proportion of proteins.

With prolonged incorrect nutrition, people have complaints about:

• deterioration of appetite;
• delay in development;
• pain in the right side associated with violation of hepatic functions;
• deterioration of skin and hair;
• nail fragility;
• weakness in the muscles.

The risk group of protein insufficiency includes vegetarians, so it is recommended to use:

• beans, peas and other representatives of the legume family;
• nuts and seeds;
• high content vegetable protein;
• dairy products and eggs.

There are methods that allow you to identify amino acids without using high-tech equipment. Thus, a significant amount of high-quality reactions has been developed, which make it possible to determine the presence or absence of certain amino acids in protein molecules based on their radicals. The most frequent reactions allowing to identify amino acids are:

• Millon - with tyrosine painting becomes red;
• Xanthoprotein - in the presence of phenylalanine or tyrosine, the color becomes yellow;
• Gopkins Cowla - with tryptophan, a purple shade appears;
• Erlich - in the presence of tryptophan, the color becomes blue;
• Sakaguchi - if there is arginine, there is a red shade;
• Nitroprusside - in the presence of arginine, red color occurs;
• Salvylene - used to determine cysteine, in which a red shade is observed;
• Pauli - in the presence of histidine and tyrosine, the color becomes red.

Much more effective methodIt allowed to determine the amino acids in food is highly efficient liquid chromatography - the method based on the separation of complex substances to simple. For this process, high pressure and fine-grained sorbents are applied. After obtaining simple substances, their analysis is carried out by conventional or physicochemical methods for the identification of compounds.

Its conduct makes sense to determine the amino acids in:

• vegetable raw materials;
• biologically active additives;
• feed additives (for feeding livestock);
• medicines;
• sports nutrition.

Indirectly determine the exchange of amino acids in the body can be possible by a nitrogen balance. The basis of this study is an assessment of the correspondence between the amount of nitrogen absorbed and derived from the body. Interest in nitrogen is due to the fact that the main source of this substance is amino acids. During the day, the organism of an adult highlights about 14-17 grams, which corresponds to 100 grams of protein. If a pronounced negative nitrogen balance is observed, this indicates a serious lack of protein metabolism, resulting in a destruction of proteins of formed tissues.

What substances are absorbed by amino acids during nutrition

As a rule, the main source of amino acids are proteins. Because of this, while they are contained in the composition of food, the symptoms of the lack of amino acids are not determined.

So, to products containing a significant amount of native protein include:

• fish (up to 21 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• chicken (up to 21 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• beef (up to 21 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• milk (up to 8 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• tofu (up to 15 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• protein yogurts (up to 8 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• cheese (up to 21 grams per 100 grams of product mass);
• eggs (up to 13 grams per 100 grams of product mass).

In the modern world, people's interest in sport gets becoming increasingly distributed. As a rule, the bulk of directions in this area is represented by mobile hobbies, which include classes:

• basketball;
• volleyball;
• football;
• badminton;
• handball;
• rugby;
• tennis;
• hockey;
• swimming.

Due to the fact that physical exertion increases, the human body is adapted by hypertrophy of muscle tissue, which is carried out by the synthesis of new proteins. Amino acids are those component, the high content of which is necessary for the adequate restoration of the muscle function.

However, along with improving the needs of muscles in amino acids, a local reduction in glycogen is also noted, which is formed as a source for rapid production of a large amount of energy. Glycogen stocks are available in many tissues that significantly increases the efficiency of cells nervous and muscular Systems organism. To replenish glycogen reserves, a significant amount of glucose is required.

For full satisfaction with the needs of the body during sports, use is required:

• proteins;
• fats;
• carbohydrates;
• vitamins.

If the deficiency and carbohydrates will occur, the energy from the oxidation of which is inserted in the form of ATP and is consumed for the needs of the body, protein degradation will occur, because of which the workouts will not only be beneficial, but also harm may occur.

The needs in amino acids differ significantly from an ordinary adult and in people who regularly engaged in sports. As a rule, according to the recommendations of the American College of Sports Medicine and the Academy of Nutrition and Diet, athletes on the day of workout and the next night you need to use from 1.2 to 2 grams of protein per kilogram of the body.

Also, depending on the kind of classes, recommendations for the need for proteins are developed:

• at the average person, the daily need in proteins is 0.8 grams per 1 kilogram of body weight;
• in humans, whose physical exertion is intense, explosive, the daily need for proteins is from 1.4 to 1.8 grams per 1 kilogram of body weight;
• in humans, whose physical exertion is prolonged and aimed at endurance, the need for proteins is from 1.2 to 1.4 grams per 1 kilogram of body weight per day.

To satisfy these needs, in most cases it is required to compile a diet that allows you to obtain all the necessary amino acids in nutrition.

• chicken fillet, egg protein, beef meat (to meet protein needs);
• oatmeal, brown rice, vegetables (to meet the needs for carbohydrates);
• nuts, olive oil, peanut butter (to meet the needs for fats).

What is the food additives with the content of amino acids

Also, in the modern world, nutritional supplements that contain a set of amino acids, carbohydrates, minerals and a number of other substances were obtained. As a rule, they are accepted by athletes engaged in power sports and bodybuilders, whose goal is to quickly gain muscle mass.

Reception of these additives is very attractive for most people, however, may have a number of significant flaws. So, there is a high probability to come across a fake, in which the content of the substances necessary for the body can be extremely small. Quite often there are mixtures containing excess carbohydrates, which is why the emission of too much insulin can occur. This causes an increased synthesis of fats from glucose and their deposits in the tissues of the body.

In addition, often manufacturers save on the production of food additives, which is why the content of omega - 3 - polyunsaturated fatty acids required for more efficient operation of the muscles and the central nervous system can be very low.

In this regard, you should not experience high hopes for protein additives, but even at their admission, the main emphasis in satisfying the needs of the body in nutrients should be done on nutritional food.

Exercise 1.

Determine the chromosomal set in the cells of the outflow and cells of the adult fern plant. As a result of what type of division, and from which cells this chromosomal set is formed?

1) Chromosomal set in cells of the otpaloid (N).

2) Chromosomal set in the cells of the adult plant diploid (2N).

3) the outflow is formed from a haploid dispute, which is divided by mitosis; The adult plant is formed from diploid zygotes, which is divided by mitosis.

Task 2.

Determine the chromosomal set in the cells of an adult plant and spores of the crunch of flax. As a result of what type of division, and from which cells this chromosomal set is formed?

1) chromosomal set in the cells of an adult gas-shaped plant (N).

2) Chromosomal kit in the armed (N) disputes.

3) an adult plant from a haploid dispute, which is divided by mitosis, forming a prerepression (proton), and then an adult plant.

4) The dispute is formed as a result of Maizo from the motherboards of the argument in the spout.

Task 3.

What chromosomal set is characteristic of hamet and dispute plants moss cucushina flax? Explain from which cells and, as a result of which division, they are formed.

Task 4.

Determine the chromosomal set of eight-cherry germ bag and coating fabric cells flower Plant. As a result of what type of division, and from which cells this chromosomal set is formed?

1) a chromosomal set of cells of an eight-year germinal bag of a flowering plant - haploid (N).

2) The chromosomal set of cells of the coating fabric of the flowering plant is diploid (2N).

3) The cells of the eight-cherry germ bag are formed from the haploid megapor, which is divided three times with mitosis.

Cells of cover fabric are formed from the educational fabric, its cells of its diploid (2N) and are divided by mitosis.

Task 5.

Determine the chromosomal set of cells of the basic fabric and sperm of the flowering plant. As a result, what type of division, and from which cells this chromosomal set is formed?

1) Chromosomal set of cells of the main fabric - diploid (2N).

2) Chromosomal set of sperm - haploid (N).

3) cells of the main tissue are formed from the educational tissue, the diploid cells of which are divided by mitosis.

Cumsions are formed from a haploid generative cell, which is divided by mitosis.

Task 6.

What kind of chromosome is contained in sperms and in the cage of the main tissue of the cucumber? Explain from what source cells and as a result of which division sperm and cells of the main tissue are formed.

Task 7.

The polypeptide consists of 20 amino acids. Determine the number of nucleotides on the gene section, which encodes the primary structure of this polypeptide, the number of codons on the IRNA corresponding to these amino acids, the number of TRNA molecules involved in the polypeptide biosynthesis. Reply explain the answer.

1) the triplet genetic code, therefore the DNA gene portion encoding 20 amino acids contains 20x3 \u003d 60 nucleotides.

2) The INNK molecule contains 20 codons - triplets.

3) For the biosynthesis of this polypeptide, 20 TRNA molecules will be needed.

Task 8.

The DNA chain fragment contains 15 nucleotides. Determine the number of nucleotides in the IRNK molecule, the number of types of TRNA molecules involved in protein synthesis, the number of amino acid residues in the protein molecule.

Task 9.

It is known that a protein molecule is synthesized, consisting of 8 amino acids. Determine how many types of TRNA participated in the synthesis, the number of nucleotides on the IRNA, the number of nucleotides on the DNA double chain.

Task 10.

The total mass of all DNA molecules in 46 chromosomes of one somatic human cell is about 6x10 - 9 mg. Determine what is equal to the mass of all DNA molecules in the spermatozoa and somatic cell before the start of mitotic division and after its end. Reply explain the answer.

1) Before the start of division in the source cell, the number of DNA doubles and its mass is 2x6x10 - 9 \u003d 12x10 - 9 mg.

2) After the end of division in the somatic cell, the amount of DNA remains the same as in the source cell - 6x10 - 9 mg.

3) in genital cells 23 chromosome, i.e. The amount of DNA is two times less than in somatic and amounts to 6x10 - 9: 2 \u003d 3x10 - 9 mg.

Task 11.

What a chromosomal set is characteristic of nucleus and endosperm seed cells, barley leaves. Explain the result in each case.

1) In the cells of the seed embryo, a set of 2N, as the embryo develops from the zygote.

2) In the cells of the seed endosperm, a set of chromosomes 3N, since the endosperm is formed when the cores of the central cell of the seed (2N) and one sperm (N) are formed.

3) Bar leaf cells have a set of chromosomes 2n, as well as all somatic cells.

Task 12.

The IRNK molecule fragment contains 12 nucleotides. Determine how many triplets are part of the DNA matrix chain. Set which percentage in the DNA molecule is cytosine and guanine nucleotides, if it is known that thymine is 31%.

1) DNA trailelets - 4 (12: 3).

2) Timin complementary adenine - 31%.

3) cytosin and guanine are 19% (100 - 62 \u003d 38: 2 \u003d 19).

Task 13.

In the DNA molecule, there are 110 nucleotides with thimine, which is 10% of their total number. Determine how many nucleotides with adenine (a), guanin (g), cytosine (C) is contained in the DNA molecule and explain the result.

Task 14.

The INNK molecule contains 24 nucleotides. Determine the total number of nucleotides on the Fragment of the DNA two-stranded molecule, the number of triplets on the DNA matrix chain and the number of nucleotides in the anti-cymodone of all TRNA.

1) DNA double chain contains 48 nucleotides (24x2 \u003d 48).

2) on the matrix chain of DNA 8 triplets (48: 2 \u003d 24 24: 3 \u003d 8).

3) There are 24 nucleotides (8x3 \u003d 24) in Anti-Codona TRNA.

Task 15.

In the transmission process, 42 TRNA molecules participated. Determine the number of amino acids included in the synthesized protein, as well as the number of triplets and nucleotides in the gene, which encodes this protein.

1) One TRNA transfers one amino acid. 42 TRNA - 42 amino acids. The synthesized protein consists of 42 amino acids.

2) One amino acid encodes one triplet of nucleotides. 42 amino acids encode 42 triplets.

3) In each triplet - three nucleotides. The gene encoding protein from 42 amino acids includes 42x3 \u003d 126 nucleotides.

Task 16.

The section of one of the two chains of the DNA molecule contains 300 nucleotides with adenine (a). 100 nucleotides with thymine (T), 150 nucleotides with guanin (g) and 200 nucleotides with cytosine (C). What is the number of nucleotides with a, t, g and c contain in a two-stranded DNA molecule? How many amino acids should the protein encoded by this section of the DNA molecule? Reply explain the answer.

1) According to the principle of complementarity in the second chain of DNA contains nucleotides: a - 100, t - 300, G - 200, C -150.

2) In two DNA circuits, it contains nucleotides: a - 400, T - 400, G - 350, C - 350.

3) information about the structure of the protein carries one of two circuits, the number of nucleotides in one DNA circuit \u003d 300 + 100 + 150 + 200 \u003d 750, one amino acid encodes the nucleotide triplet, therefore the protein should contain 750: 3 \u003d 250 amino acids.

Task 17.

The INNK molecule contains 42 nucleotides. Determine the total number of nucleotides in the fragment of the DNA dual-stranded molecule, the number of triplets on the DNA matrix chain and the number of nucleotides in the anticodones of all TRNA molecules.

1) DNA double-stranded circuit contains 84 nucleotides.

2) in the matrix chain of DNA 14 triplets (42: 3).

3) The TRNA anticodone contains 42 nucleotides.

Task 18.

In the synthesis of protein, 11 types of TRNA take part. Determine how many nucleotides contains a DNA molecule matrix chain. Set which percentage in the DNA molecule is thyminic, cytosine and guanine nucleotides, if adenine contains 18%.

1) The DNA chain contains 33 nucleotides.

2) Timin is complementary adenine and is 18%.

3) cytosin and guanine are 32% (100 - 36 \u003d 64: 2 \u003d 32).

Task 19.

The fragment of the protein molecule consists of 30 different amino acids. Determine how many types of TRNA participated in the synthesis of a fragment of a protein molecule. How many nucleotides are contained in the IRNA and one chain of the DNA molecule involved in biosynthesis?

In biosynthesis participates: 1) 30 TRNA molecules.

2) 90 nucleotides in INK.

3) 90 nucleotides in one DNA circuit.

The molecular weight of the amylase enzyme protein is 97600 AE.M 1 to determine the number of amino acids of the links 2 to determine the number of nucleotides

3 Determine the number of nucleotides in one DNA circuit in the other DNA chains

4 how many triplets are an amylase protein coded

5 Determine the molecular weight of the amylase gene in DNA

6 Determine the length of the amilath protein gene

Task 1. How many nucleotides contains gene (both DNA chains) in which the insulin protein from 51 amino acids is programmed? Task 2. How many amino acids

encodes 900 nucleotides and-RNA? Task.3 How many nucleotides in the gene encodes a sequence of 60 amino acids in a protein molecule? Task 4. What number of nucleotides in the gene encodes the primary protein structure consisting of 300 amino acids?

The protein consists of 210 amino acids. Set, how many times the molecular weight of the portion of the gene encoding this protein exceeds the molecular weight

protein, if the average mass of amino acids - 110, and nucleotide - 300. Reply explain.

Help please, it is very necessary urgently ... Genetic challenges: 1. What sequence correctly reflects the path of implementing genetic

information? Select one correct answer:

gene → IRNA → Protein → Sign

Sign → Protein → IRNA → Gene → DNA,

IRNA → Gene → Protein → Sign

Gene → DNA → Sign → Protein.

2. The protein consists of 50 amino acid residues. How many nucleotides in the gene? 3. The protein consists of 130 amino acids. Set the number of nucleotides in IRNA and DNA encoding this protein, and the number of TRNA molecules that are necessary for the synthesis of this protein. Reply explain the answer.

4. The protein consists of 70 amino acids. Set, how many times the molecular weight of the portion of the gene encoding this protein exceeds the molecular weight of the protein, if the average molecular weight of the amino acid is 110, and the nucleotide is 300. The answer explain.

6. According to the instructions of hereditary information, the cell synthesizes the protein, at the beginning of which amino acids are connected in such a sequence: leucine - GISTIDIN - AsParagin - Valin - Leucin - Triptofan - Valin - Arginine - Arginine - Proline - Treonin-Serin - Tyrosine - Lizin - Valin .. . Determine the IRNA controlling the synthesis of the specified polypeptide.

7. What triplet corresponds to the antikodone AAU on TRNA?

8. The IRNA chain fragment has the following nucleotide sequence: Tsgaguugzurgg. Determine the sequence of nucleotides on DNA, TRNA anti-cycodones and a sequence of amino acids that corresponds to this gene fragment.

mitoz, Meiosis:

1. During abnormal mitosis in human tissue culture, one of the short chromosomes (№21) was not divided, and the whole left in one of the subsidiaries. What sets of chromosomes will carry each of the subsidiaries?

2. In the somatic plant of the plant 16 chromosomes. One of the cells entered mitosis, but at the stage of the anatherapy, the spindle divisions was destroyed by a colchicine. The cell survived, graduated from mitosis. Determine the amount of chromosomes and DNA in this cell at all stages of the next cell cycle?

3. In the process of MEIOS, one of the homologous chromosomes of a person did not share (unreleased). How many chromosomes contain each cell formed as a result of such meiosis?

4. In the cell of the animal, the diploid set of chromosomes is 46. Determine the number of DNA molecules before the meyosis, after the first and after the second division?

5. The goniasis cell in front of the meyosis has an AAAVSS genotype. Write cell genotypes:

a) for all stages of spermatogenesis;

b) for all stages of Ovogenesis.

6. How many eggs can give 500 oocytes of order? 500 oocytes II order? Reply explain the circuit of the ovogenesis.

Need help on biology for die with the top three in a quarter!

1) The DNA gene fragment has a trace. The sequence of TCGGTZAAACTTAGTSTAGTSCTATICCT Determine the sequence of nucleotides and RNA and amino acids in the protein polypeptide chain.
2) Determine the IRNN nucleotide sequence, synthesized with the right circuit of the DNA molecule, if its left chain has a trace. Sequence: - T-Mr.-Mr.-T-T-T-Mr.-A-T-TC-Mr..
3) Determine the sequence of amino acid residues in the protein molecule
-G-T-A-A-Mr.-T-T-TC-T-Ts-Mr.
4) Determine the sequence of nucleotides in the IRNN molecule if the sequence of the protein molecule synthesized with her has the form: - threonine - methionine-histidine - valine-Arg. - Proline - Cysteine \u200b\u200b-.
5) How will the protein structure change, if the DNA section is encoder:
-G-A-T-A-C-C-Mr.-T-A-A-A-M-A-T-A-A-G-A-T-A-A-G-A-C- Delete the sixth and thirteenth (left) nucleotides?
6) What changes will occur in the structure of the protein, if in the coding section of the DNA: -t-a-a-c-a-g-a-g-a-c-c-a-a-g -... Between 10 and 11 nucleotides include cytosine, between 13 and 14 - Timin, and at the end next to Guanin makes his way another guanine?
7) Determine the IRNK and the primary structure of the protein encoded in the DNA section: -G-T-TC-T-A-A-A-G-Mr. C-C-A-T- .. if 5 - The nucleotide will be removed, and a tyamidyl nucleotide will rise between 8 and 9 nucleotide?
8) The polypeptide consists of a trail. For each other located amino acids: Valin - Alanine - Glycine - Lizin - Triptofan - Valin - SERNY-glutamic acid. Determine the structure of the DNA section encoding the above polypeptide.
9) Asparagin - glycine - phenylalanine - proline - threonine - methionine - lysine - valine - glycine .... amino acids, the polypeptide is consistently. Determine the structure of the DNA section encoding this polypeptide.

The polypeptide consists of 20 amino acids. Determine the number of nucleotides on the gene section, which encodes the primary structure of this polypeptide, the number of nucleotides on the section of this gene, which encodes the primary structure of this polypeptide, the number of codons to and-RNA corresponding to these amino acids. And the number of T-RNA molecules involved in the biosynthesis of this polypeptide (it should be noted that one T-RNA delivers one amino acid to ribosome). Reply explain the answer. one

The information portion and RNA contains 120 nucleotides. Determine the number of amino acids included in the protein encoded by it, the number of T-RNA molecules involved in the biosynthesis of this protein, the number of triplets in the portion of the gene encoding the primary structure of this protein (it should be taken into account that one T-RNA delivers one amino acid to ribosome). Explain the results obtained. 2.

3 The section of one of the two chains of the DNA molecule contains 300 nucleotides with adenine (A), 100 nucleotides with thymine (T), 150 nucleotides with guanin (g) and 200 nucleotides with cytosine (C). What is the number of nucleotides with a, t, g and c contain in a two-stranded DNA molecule? How many amino acids should the protein encoded by this section of the DNA molecule? Reply explain the answer.

5 The DNA molecule section encoding the sequence of amino acids in protein has the following composition: Mr.-T-Mr. A-T-A-Mr.-T-T-T-Ts. Explain to which consequences can cause a random addition to the guanin nucleotide (d) between the seventh and eighth nucleotides.

It is known that all types of RNA are synthesized on the DNA matrix. The fragment of the DNA molecule, on which the TRNA central loop area is synthesized, has the following nucleotide sequence: TsGTTGGTSTAGGTSTT. Set the nucleotide sequence of the TRNA section, which is synthesized on this fragment, and the amino acid that this TRNA will be transferred during the protein biosynthesis, if the third triplet corresponds to the antiquodone TRNA. Reply explain the answer. To solve the task, use the table of the genetic code.

8 In the sequence of one of the initial chains of DNA A G C A G, the mutation occurred - the loss of the second nucleotide in the third triplet. Using the genetic code table, define the original amino acid sequence. Will the primary structure of the original polypeptide change? Reply explain the answer. What kind of mutations is this change?

Although tasks C5 and C6 and include the most
Complex for understanding the field of biological
Knowledge, almost all of them are pretty
specifically. Answers to them can be given more often
just definitely, that is, as well as
conceived by the authors themselves.
It completely eliminates any
Subjectivistic interpretations in assessing knowledge
from the inspection experts.

Before proceeding to solving problems,
Need:
have a very clear idea of
On biological matrices: principles
copying and creating in the cell of DNA molecules,
different types of RNA and proteins;
To do this, you need to understand well
The structure of large aperiodic molecules
nucleic acids and proteins (irregular
cell biopolymers);
know well what a genetic code and
His properties.

Table of genetic code (and-RNA)

Note! When we talk about the genetic code, we really mean the sequence of nucleotides (triplets) of the molecule

Note!
When we talk about the genetic code, we
really mean
Sequence nucleotide
(Triplets) DNA molecules.
The table of the decoding genetic
Code represented by B.
Examination C5 for
problem solutions are compiled for
Triplets (codons)
and RNA, and not DNA triplets!

The theoretical material of this section is very large, but I will highlight the main thing:

DNA is in the kernel and consists of two
complementary chains in it
Information O. Information is encoded
Amino acid sequences in protein;
During transcription on one of the chains
DNA is synthesized and RNA, it comes
in the cytoplasm and serves as a matrix for
protein synthesis;
The structural unit of nucleic
acids (NK) is nucleotide, their
Severe five type-adenyl (A),
thimidyl (T), guanilla (g),
cytidyl (C), uridyl (y)
Each type of NK contains only four
nucleotide species, in DNA - A, T, G, C; in RNA -
A, y, g, c;

One amino acid is encoded by three
standing near nucleotides
-Trilelet (codon);
One amino acid is transported to
Synthesis of one T-RNA, on top
which is located antikodon;
Nucleotides are connected on the principle
Communication: opposite and
Located t, and opposite Mr.
This is the minimum of information that is necessary
To solve problems.

Learning to decide!
DNA is given by the right chain of DNA:
Agagtgtsgttsag
Using the genetic code table to build
Fragment of protein encrypted on this site
DNA
DNA
And-RNA
protein
Agagtgtsgttsag
Watzzzhatzhaaaaguz
Fen
Ser.
ARG
Liz
shaft

Task 1.

Nucleotides:
Gttatghaaga.
Determine the sequence of nucleotides on
and RNA, anticodones of the corresponding T-RNA and
Amino acid sequence in fragment

Code.
Response elements:
1. The sequence of nucleotides on and-RNA:
Cahuacesucyuu
2. Anticodones T-RNA molecules: GUU, AURG, GAA, GAA
3. Sequence of amino acids in the molecule
squirrel:
GLN-TIR-lei

10.

Task 2.
In the transmission process, 30 TRNA molecules participated. Determine the number of amino acids included in
The composition of the synthesized protein, as well as the number
triplets and nucleotides in the gene that encodes
This protein.

1. One T-RNA transports one amino acid,
Consequently, 30 T-RNA corresponds to 30
amino acids, and protein consists of 30 amino acids;
2. One amino acid encodes a tript of nucleotides,
it means 30 amino acids are encoded by 30 triplets;
3. Nucleotide number in a gene encoding protein
Of 30 amino acids - 30 x 3 \u003d 90.

11.

Task 3.
DNA chain fragment has a sequence
Nucleotides:
GTHTATGGAAGT.
Determine
sequence
nucleotide
on the
and RNA,
Anticodones
relevant
T-RNA
and
sequence
Amino acids
in
Fragment
protein molecules using a genetic table
Code.
Response elements:
1. The sequence of nucleotides on and-RNA:
Tsantauaceuza;
1. Anticodones T-RNA molecules: Goog, Uau, GGA, AGU,
2. The sequence of amino acids in the molecule
squirrel:
GIS-Ile-Pro-Ser

12.

Task 4.
Under the influence of nitrogenous acid cytosine
turns into guanin. How to change the structure
Virus protein tobacco mosaic, if the RNA of the virus
UJGGGUTSAUUITSU,
coding
his
protein,
Subjected to agenic acid? For
Solution Take advantage of the genetic table
Code.
Response elements:
1. The initial sequence of amino acids
Ser-Gly-Ser-Ile-Tre
2. Changed RNA: Uggggugghauaguagu
3. New amino acid sequence
Three-Gly-Three-Ile-Ser;

13.

Task 5.
The polypeptide consists of 20 amino acids. Determine
The number of nucleotides on the portion of the gene, which
encodes the primary structure of this polypeptide,
The number of codons on and-RNA corresponding to this
amino acids, and the number of T-RNA molecules involved
In the biosynthesis of this polypeptide.
The problem solving scheme includes:
1) the genetic code of DNA triplet, so the DNA gene section,
Coding polypeptide of 20 amino acids, contains 20 x 3 \u003d
60 nucleotides;
2) the information part of the IRNK contains 20 codons;
3) for biosynthesis of this polypeptide will require 20 molecules
TRNA.

14.

Task 6.
All types of RNA are synthesized on the DNA matrix. Fragment of molecule
DNA on which the T-RNA central loop area is synthesized,
It has the following nucleotide sequence:
Tqagtsgtsttzgateg.
Determine the nucleotide sequence of the TRNA section,
which is synthesized on this fragment and amino acid,
which this T-RNA will carry in the protein biosynthesis process,
If the third triplet corresponds to the antiquodone T-RNA. Answer
Explain. To solve the task, use a genetic table
Code.
Response elements:
1. Nucleotide sequence of site and-RNA
Agutsgzghagtsuhata;
2. Nucleotide sequence of anticodone GAA (third
triplet) corresponds to the codon on the CSU and RNA;
3. It corresponds to the amino acid depth, which will be transferred
This T-RNA.

15.

Task 7.
DNA molecule plot has the following structure
Tagghartgottsate.
Determine the sequence of nucleotides
Relevant section M-RNA, sequence
Amino acids in a polypeptide synthesized by M-RNA.
How will the sequence of amino acids change
polypeptide if as a result of mutation from
The 5th, 12th, 15th, coding DNA plot
nucleotides? Use the table to solve the task
genetic code.
Response elements:
1. M-RNA: Gauczougatsaugua;
2. Polypeptide before mutation:
Asp-pro-asp-ile-shaft;
3. Polypeptide after mutation: ASP-lei-tre-cis.

16.

Task 8.
The molecular weight of the polypeptide is 55000.
Determine the length of the gene encoder if
Molecular weight of one amino acid average
equal to 100, and the distance between adjacent nucleotides
The DNA circuit is 0.34 nm.
Response elements:
1. The amount of amino acids in the polypeptide -55000 / 100 \u003d 550;
2. The number of nucleotides of the coding section of DNA
(gene) - 550 * 3 \u003d 1650;
3. The length of the DNA coding section (gene) -
1650 * 0.34 \u003d 561 nm

17.

Task 9.
How much is adenine nucleotides (a), thymine
(T), Guanin (g) and cytosine (C) in a fragment
DNA molecules if 180 detected in it
cytosine nucleotides (C), which is 20% of
The total number of nucleotides in this fragment
DNA?
Response elements:
1. Adenin (a) complementary thimin (T), and guanine (g) -
cytosine (C), so the number of complementary
nucleotides equally;
2. Cytosine (C) contains 20%, and therefore guanin (d)
Also 20%, adenine (a) and thymine (T) 100% - (20% + 20%) \u003d 60%: 2 \u003d 30%;
3. Cytosine (C) contains 180 nucleotides, it means that
Guanin (D) is also 180, adenine (a) and thymine (T)
180/20 * 30 \u003d 270 nucleotides

18.

Task 10.
The protein consists of 200 amino acids. Install, V.
how many times the molecular weight of the gene section of the gene,
encoding this protein exceeds
molecular weight of protein if medium
Molecular weight of amino acids-110, and nucleotide300.
Response elements:
1. Types of tryptic code, therefore, protein,
consisting of 200 amino acids encodes 600
nucleotides.
2.Molecular weight of protein 200 * 110 \u003d 22 000;
Molecular weight of gene 300 * 600 \u003d 180,000.
3. DNA sufficiently harder than protein encoded by him,
approximately 8.1 times (180,000: 22 000)