What features of the structure and livelihoods of covered bridges contributed. Features of the covered bridal abstract on biology Download free flowering plants, essays from biology. Moscow State University

01.05.2019

Covenate (flowering, pestle) in the time of appearance on Earth are the youngest and at the same time the most highly organized group of plants. In the process of evolution, representatives of this department appeared later than others, but they very quickly took the dominant position on the globe.

The most characteristic distinctive feature of the covered bridge is the presence of a kind of organ - a flower, which is absent from representatives of other plant departments. Therefore, coated bridges and are called more often with flowering plants. The seedhead is hidden, it develops inside the pestle, in its wound, so the covered bridges are called otherwise pesting. The pollen from the coated brimmed is captured by non-seeds, like a varieself, but a special formation - a snag that the pestle ends.

After fertilization of the egg from the seed, the seed is formed, and the ovary is growing into the fruit. Consequently, the seeds in the coated bridge are developing in the fruits, so this plant department is called coated.

Covenate (Angiospermae), or Flower (Magnoliophyta) - Department of the most perfect higher Plantshaving a flower. Previously included in the department of seed plants together with viced. Unlike the latest flowering, flowering sees are enclosed in a marking formed by the controversial structures.

Flower is a generative body covered plants. It consists of a flowerball and a color. On the latter there are perisher (simple or double), Androza (the totality of the stamens) and the Ginetsay (the combination of restrainists). Each stitch consists of a thin sticky thread and an extended anther, in which sperm ripen. The flower plant rest is represented by a pestle, which consists of a massive launch and a long column, the vertex extended part of which is called a stitch.

The coated bridges have vegetative organs that provide mechanical support, transport, photosynthesis, gas exchange, as well as the supply of nutrients, and the generative organs involved in sexual reproduction. The internal structure of the tissues is most difficult from all plants; Synotoid flolam elements are surrounded by satellite cells; Almost all representatives of the coated bridges have xylene vessels.

Men's gamets contained inside of pollen grave fall on the stitch and germinate. Gametophytes of flowers are extremely simplified and miniature, which significantly reduces the duration of the breeding cycle. They are formed as a result minimum quantity Mitozov (three in the female gametophyte and two men). One of the features of sexual reproduction is a double fertilization, when one of the sperms merges with an egg, forming the zygota, and the second - with the polar nuclei, forming an endosperm that serves as a nutrient reserves. Seeds of flowering plants are enclosed in the fruit (hence their second name is coated).

The first flowering plants appeared at the beginning of the chalk period of about 135 million years ago (or even at the end of the Jurassic). The question of the ancestor of the covered bridge is currently remaining open; The most close to them extinct bednotectite, however, it is more likely that, together with Bennettites, the covered bridges were aligned with one of the groups of seed ferns. The first flowering plants were, apparently, evergreen trees with primitive flowers, devoid of petals; Ksilem did not have vessels.

In the middle of the chalk period, just a few million years occurs the conquest of sushi-covered sushi. One of the most important conditions for the rapid spread of the covered bridge was their unusually high evolutionary plasticity. As a result of adaptive radiation due to environmental and genetic factors (in particular, aneupridia and polyptication), a huge number of different types of coated bridges included in a variety of ecosystems were formed. By the middle of the Cretaceous period, most modern families were formed. The evolution of terrestrial mammals, birds and, especially insects is closely connected with flowering plants. The latter play an extremely important role in the evolution of the flower, implementing pollination: bright coloring, aroma, edible pollen or nectar - all these means of attracting insects.

Flower plants are common worldwide, from the Arctic to Antarctic. The basis of their systematics is the structure of the flower and inflorescences, pollen grain, seed, anatomy of xylems and flora. Nearly 250 thousand species of covered bridges are divided into two classes: two-dollar and monocycle, differing, above all, by the number of cotyledons in the embryos, the structure of the sheet and flower.

Flower plants are one of the key components of the biosphere: they produce organic substances, bind carbon dioxide and allocate molecular oxygen to the atmosphere, most of the pasture power circuits begin with them. Many flowering plants are used by man for cooking, building housing, making various economic materials, for medical purposes.

Covenate - the largest type of plants to which more than half of all known species belongs, are characterized by a number of clear, sharply separating their signs. The most characteristic of them is the presence of a pestle formed by one or more structures (macro and megarophylls), which have consisted in its edges, so that in the lower part of the pestle, a closed hollow product is formed - the marking, in which the seeds (macro and megolangia) develop. After fertilization, the marking is growing up into the fruit, within which the seeds (or one seed) are developing from the seeds. In addition, the coated brimmed are characteristic: an eight-year, or derived from it, an embryonic bag, double fertilization, triplened endosperm, which is formed only after fertilization, a snap of a pestle, capturing pollen, and for the overwhelming majority - a more or less typical flower with a perianth. Of the anatomical signs for the coated brushes, the presence of real vessels (trachemetes) is characteristic, while the vote only the tracheites are developed, and the vessels are extremely rare.

In view of large number General signs should be assumed to assume the monophiletic origin of the vicious group coated from some more primitive group. The earliest and very fragmentary fossil residues of the covered bridge (pollen, wood) are known from the Jurassic Geological Period. Of the nose-colored deposits, there are also a few reliable remnants of covered residues, and in the sediments of the middle of the chalk period they are found immediately in large quantities and in a significant variety of forms that everyone belongs to many different living families and even childbirth.

Distinctive features of covered brine

Angiospermae), or flowers (Magnoliophyta) - department of the most perfect higher plants having a flower. Previously included in the department of seed plants together with viced. Unlike the latest flowering, flowering sees are enclosed in a marking formed by the controversial structures.

The flower is a generative organ of coated plants. It consists of a flowerball and a color. On the latter there are perisher (simple or double), Androza (the totality of the stamens) and the Ginetsay (the combination of restrainists). Each stitch consists of a thin sticky thread and an extended anther, in which sperm ripen. The flower plant rest is represented by a pestle, which consists of a massive launch and a long column, the vertex extended part of which is called a stitch.

Men's gamets contained inside of pollen grave fall on the stitch and germinate. Gametophytes of flowers are extremely simplified and miniature, which significantly reduces the duration of the breeding cycle. They are formed as a result of the minimum amount of mitoses (three in the female Gametophyte and two men). One of the features of sexual reproduction is a double fertilization, when one of the sperms merges with an egg, forming the zygota, and the second - with the polar nuclei, forming an endosperm that serves as a nutrient reserves. Seeds of flowering plants are enclosed in the fruit (hence their second name is coated).

Due to the large number of general signs, the monophiletic origin of the spots coated from some more primitive group should be assumed. The earliest and very fragmentary fossil residues of the covered bridge (pollen, wood) are known from the Jurassic Geological Period. Of the nose-colored deposits, there are also a few reliable remnants of covered residues, and in the sediments of the middle of the chalk period they are found immediately in large quantities and in a significant variety of forms that everyone belongs to many different living families and even childbirth.

As an alleged ancestors of the covered bridges, various groups of submissions in the plant system were indicated - Keitonium, seed ferns, bennetta, burned. Keitoniyev had zerovy, a snack, but they were formated other than that of coated; They had no similarity of flowers, sporesophilles are simple and, probably, they represent the blind branch of evolution. Bennettitis had rigorous "flowers", but there were no pestles, and their seeds were only hidden between fruitless scales, and were not inside the fruits formed by megaphylls. Seed ferns did not have flowers, there was no coated bridge.

The theory of origin of the coated brushed from the oppression assumes that the most primitive coated bridges had small same-sex flowers without a perianth or with an unspoic perianth. But for a number of considerations, large, rim flowers are currently considering more primitive flowers. Therefore, it can be assumed that the ancestors of modern coated brimmed were some extinct, very primitive voted with rosy flowers such as a bump (strobals), in which there were spiral (unreliable) leaflets of a homogeneous perianth, microsurophilles (s) on a long blossom (axis). Stamens) and megalophylls (fruits). In the system of voted, this group had to stand somewhere between seed ferns and already more specialized Bennettites and segregatives.

The coated bridgeness undoubtedly represented a big advantage in the sense of the protection of seeds and developing seeds from any adverse external influences and primarily from air dryness. But one covered image is still difficult to explain the rapid powerful development Covered and displacement by the archegonional plants that prevailing earlier on Earth. Russian Botanist M.I. Glainkin expressed (in 1927) an interesting hypothesis about the causes of victory covered in the struggle for existence. He suggests that in the middle of the chalk period for some common cosmogonical reasons throughout the earth, there was a sharp change in lighting and humidity. Dense clouds that have previously wounded the land constantly, scattered and gave access to bright sunny raysIn connection with which the dryness of air has increased dramatically. The huge majority of the highest archegonal plants of that time, not adapted and failed to adapt to bright lighting and dry air, began to dy up or sharply reduced their distribution areas (except for coniferous, most xerophytic).

On the contrary, the coated bridge, which had a very limited distribution and representation of a small number of forms, developed the ability to finely carry bright sunlight and dry air. This circumstance, as well as the emergency evolutionary plasticity of them, the ability to make a variety of devices to various external conditions and led to the rapid victorious distribution of the coated over all of the land and the displacement of previously dominated groups of higher archegonional plants.

The victory of the covered bridge led to changes in the animal population of the Earth; It was especially necessary to affect the rapid evolution of insects, mammals and birds that feed insects, then predatory and fronewas. In turn, the coated brimmed gradually arose in the process of evolution of countless adaptive changes in the form, chemical and functions due to complex and various relationships with the animal world. The victory of the covered bridge was a turning point, a deep revolution in the fate of the whole animal population of the Earth.

On the issue of the place of the initial appearance of the covered, various assumptions were expressed. Some believe that they first appeared on a hypothetical tropical mainland located between America, Asia and Australia and subsequently immersed in the Pacific Water. Others consider the cradle of their area of \u200b\u200bmodern Arctic sushi, the third - mountains of subtropical and moderately warm zone of the northern hemisphere. Most botany are currently considering that primary coated bridges were wood plants that had low trunks, monopodial branched on a few thick branches. Of these, larger sympodially branched trees with numerous thick and thin branches have already developed. From the wooded forms at different times and different phylogenetic lines, shrubs, semi-staples and herbaceous forms, initially perennial, were developed, then in various kinds due to CO specific climate conditions and habitats - twilight and annuals.

Due to the large plasticity of the coated bridge, they have developed a huge variety of vegetative organs, especially in the leaves, numerous metamorphoses, as well as an infinite variety in flower and fruits. Complexity and diversity chemical composition and physiological reactions are also very characteristic of them.

The evolution of the flower, on the structure of which the systematics of coated brushes is mainly based, and schematically, they have passed from flowers with a long bloody (type of cones) from ripples, actinorphic with a spiral location of free (unreleased) and non-fixed members, with The upper boundary and numerous seeds - to cyclic flowers, zygomorphic, separation, with a strictly fixed number of more or less controversial members in a flat color, with a lower one-yard score and a few or one seed. This evolution of the coated flower occurred in different evolutionary rows of them independently of each other.

It is common to covered throughout everywhere almost to the extreme limits of vegetation and determine the nature of landscapes everywhere, except for coniferous forests, peat swamps and some types of tundras.

In the life and economic activity of a person, the role of coated bridges is immeasurably more than the remaining groups of plants. Food, clothing, forage for livestock, aromatic, drugs, medicinal, tanning substances, rubber and guttapercha, plug and more is obtained from coated; Material for housing, fuel. DIY MATERIALS, paper is also substantially supplied with coated.

Covered bridges are divided into two classes - digestive and monocotted colors. For dicotomy characteristic: two seeds in seeds, open conductive beams (with Cambier), preservation throughout the life of the main root (in individuals born from seeds), the rifle and mesh leaves, 5-4-2-membered flower type. One-bedrooms are characterized by opposite features: one cotyledon in seeds, closed conductive beams (without Cambia), early filling of the main root and the development of the apparent root system, parallel or arc housing, three-membered type of flowers. Separate signs of one group may also meet with representatives of another group, therefore the entire set of signs is important.

The flowering plant department unites two classes: dicotyledan and monocoons.

Most significant sign - The structure of the seed. But one sign is not enough to determine the affiliation of the plant to one or another class. It is necessary to know all signs of this plant.

The class of dicotyathic is the most numerous, it includes about 80% of the types of coated plants, which are combined in 325 families. The family of flowering plants is highlighted mainly on the basis of the structure of the flower and the fetus.

The single-bedroom class includes about 25% of flowering plants. It is predominantly grass. Only in a few families there are tree forms, and they live mostly in the tropics. The most outdoorized single-bedroom group lives in reservoirs, swamps. It includes a graonist, a chastuma, the RDESTs. But among monocotional many species that have achieved a high level of organization, such as cereals.

The typical family of a single-bedroom class is the family of Lily. Among the plants of this family, perennial herbs predominate, which are well developed rhizomes or bulbs, lancing or linear-shaped leaves with arc or parallel housing. Many of the loyal ephemers or ephemeraloids have a short period of vegetation.

Flowers in lilyery large, diverse color, single or collected in a brush. The perianth is simple, whimsical, consists of six surrounding or free leaves located in two circles. The stamens six, also located in two circles, the pestle one (of three fragile structures). Flawer fruit - berry or box.

Among the lilyerous many decorative plants (lilies, tulips), food (onions, garlic), medicinal (lily of the lily, aloe, a dosage dosage), etc.

The largest family in the one-bedroom class is cereals. There are over 10 thousand types of cereals. They are common around the globe. This is a prosperous family that has reached the high level of the organization.

Almost all cereals are grassy perennial, less often annual plants. They constitute the basis of the herb of many plant communities: meadows, steppes, etc. Bamboo is known from rustic cereals. Plants of this family can be found on a hollow stalk - solomine with nodes and interstices. The nodes are filled with loose cloth. Stems of cereals grow long as a result of cell division in interstitial. Such growth is called inserting.

Casts can be found in the leaves: they are narrow, long, with parallel housing. The sheet has a wide base in the form of a tube - vagina. It protects against the damage of tender cells of intersals, due to the division of which the stalk grows.

For cereals, the urine root system is also characteristic. Thus, cereals can be distinguished from plants of other families according to the characteristics of the structure of vegetative organs (leaves, roots and stems).

Flowers from cereals small, inhabitant, are collected in spikelets. Complies from a plurality of spikelets: complex spikes, tip, etc. in each spikelet from 1 to 10 and more flowers. The flower of the cereal has three stamens and one pestle, but he has no cup and a whisk. Most cereals are brazed plants. The cereals have a typical fruit for this family - a grain, rich in squirrels and starch.

Celebrates breed seeds, as well as vegetatively with the help of rhizomes and rooting shoots.

The cereals make up the basis of human nutrition and farm animals. These include the most important fodder and food cultural plants. Wild cereals make up the main feed feed. Bamboo and sugar cane are formed in the tropics. Sugar reeds are specifically growing on plantations and sugar, rum, alcohol and a molasses are obtained from it. The cereals are also used to produce paper, in textile, chemical and construction industry.

In the modern era, when environmental conditions are worsening, some types of cereals were threatened. 23 types of cereals are listed in the Red Book: Kickli Camel, Kickle Melcoous, Kicklock Escape, Mattite Multicolored, Drubwich Kickle Lest, et al.

Monocoan plants (Lat. Liliopsida.lat. Monocotyledones, eng. monocots) - class of coated bridge, or flowering, plants, the most numerous family of which are orchid, distinguished by extremely complex, beautiful colors. In second place in the number of species, the family of cereals is very important.

The traditional Latin name for this group of plants is Monocotyledones, although lately, for example, in the Kronkovist system ( Cronquist.) them official name - Liliopsida. (liliopsida). As monocoan - Group rank above the family, the choice of name is not limited. Article 16 of the ICBN allows both the descriptive name and the name formed from the typical type of group.

Traditional name monocoan, Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae., It comes from the fact that the embryos of the majority of the group members have only one semilar in contrast to the bipathicians who are usually two. From a diagnostic point of view, the determination of the amount of cotyadal is neither easily accessible way nor the reliable distinguishing characteristic of the plant. The distinction of monocoons and dicolored was first used in plant systematics even at the beginning of the XVIII century English naturalist J. Raem.

However, one-friendly has more visual distinguishing features. The embryonic root usually stops growing and replaced by the apparent roots. Steel vascular bundles are closed, scattered throughout the cross section of the stem; Cambia is not, therefore thickening skes along the type of dwarfothic or viced is not observed. Stems are rarely branched. The leaves most of the stems, always without horses, are usually narrow and donfear. Flowers are commonly constructed along the triple type: the perianth of two three-mended circles, the stamens are also 3 + 3, the fins 3, less often instead of the number 3 in the flower there are 2 or 4 numbers in the flower.

Monocoons are a monophiletic group that has arisen at the dawn of the development of coated plants. The oldest fossil plants, which can be attributed to the monocotional, have the age of the end of the chalk period.

The APG II scientific classification system developed by the APG group (English. Angiosperm. Phylogeny. Group.) Determines monocoan As one of the two largest groups among coated bribed plants. The second group is "Eidicota" ( eudicots.), according to the established tradition, is sometimes called "Paleodicotes" ( palaeodicots.). Among the monocotionals there are ten orders of magnitude and two families, which are still not finally attributed to any of the orders. These orders are distributed as follows:

Main monocycle

· Petrosavia family ( Petrosaviaceae.) / en: Petrosaviaceae

· Pro order Airo Color ( Acores.) / en: acoreles

· Obochorators ( Alismatales.) / en: Alismatales

· Parish-colored ( Asparagales.) / en: Asparagles

· Personal special color ( Dioscoreales.) / en: dioscoreales

· OrallyLeelerts ( Liliales.) / en: liliales

· Oboandanoloic ( Pandanales.) / en: Pandanales

· Family ( Dasypogonaceae.) / en: dasypogonaceae

· Palmoral order ( Arecales.) / en: Arecales

· Commodico color order ( Commelinales.) / en: commelinales

· The order is zlakolochny ( Poales.) / en: Poales

· The procedure is genitrusive ( Zingiberales.) / en: zingiberales

A more traditional classification is the Kronkin System (1981), according to which all one-bedrooms broke into five subclasses with the following order:

Alismatida ( Alismatidae.)

· Farm order (Alismatales)

· Purpose of watercourses (Hydrocharmitales)

· Najadales order (Najadales)

· Pro order triuris (triuridales)

Arecides ( Arecidae.)

· Palm tree order (Arecales)

· Cyclanthales order (Cyclanthales)

· Pandanalees order (Pandanales)

· Order Aroness (Arales)

Commodic Color ( Commelinidae.)

· Commelinolic order (Commelinales)

· Eryokaulon order (eriocaulates)

· Pro order Restion (Restional)

· Sittic color order (Juncales)

· Ceperales order (Cyperales)

· Gydatellone order (Hydatellales)

· ROGO ORDER (TYPHALES)

Ginger ( Zingiberidae.)

· Bromeliev order (Bromeliales)

· Zingiberales order

Lubs ( Liliidae.)

· Liliece-deed order (LILIALES)

· OrchidaColic order (Orchidales)

Class Dichomotor belongs to the department Flower (Anthophyta), or Covenate (Magnoliophyta, or Angiospermae) plants. This class is much more diverse and more by the amount of second class from this department - Monocoons (Monocotiledonae or liliopsida). Of the total number of flowering plants, there are about 80% for the share of dwoom colon.

Two classroom class characterized The presence of the following signs that distinguish it from one-bedroom:

1. The embryo with two seedlines.

2. The main root is well developed and maintained throughout life, therefore the rod (less often urine) root system.

3. The stem is capable of secondary thickening of the prevention of Cambia; Conductive bundles open.

4. The leaves are diverse in shape and dissection, have a finger or cigarette dwelling, the shape of the edge of the sheet plate can be different.

5. Acyclic, semi-cyclic and cyclic flowers. The number of members of each circle is multiple 5, rarely 2, even less than 3.

To the class of disadvantaged about 200,000 species, 10,000 birth, about 300 families (depending on the classification adopted). These are grassy and woody plants.

Systematics Flowering plants, starting, from the 18th century a lot of nerd scientists, both domestic and foreign ones. All of them have contributed invaluable contribution to the modern construction of a phylogenetic (natural) system of flowering plants. However, there is still no generally accepted classification system of coated plants.

The most controversial is the question of which groups of covered bridges are closest to ancient ancestral forms. In the systems of famous botany-phylogenetics A. Egerler and R. Vettshtein for the most primitive groups, families are accepted with single-frame and conflexible, unpleasant, anemofilic flowers (IV, birch, etc.). In more modern systems As a primitive group, families with well-developed polynomials, sedipable, entomophilic flowers, so-called multi-cell (Magnolia families, lutikovye and etc.). Family flowers are considered second-terrorist. Such systems are the systems of Botany N. A. Bush, A. A. Grossheim, A. L. Tax Tajian, Getchinson (England), etc. One of the last systems, in which the greatest number of signs is taken into account, is the system of A. L. Takhtajian ( 1970).

According to A. L. Takhtajan, the wadlinary class includes 7 subclasses: Magnoliidae, Ranunculidae, Hamamelididae, Caryophyllidae, Dilleniidae, Rosidae and Asteridae. Within each subclass, its families are combined into orders. The whole class of dualotrol includes 71 order. The first on account covers the most primitive families, the latter - phylogenetically more advanced.

Basic orders Two classroom class:

Separate subclass (Choripetalae): Magnoli-color (Magnoliales), the order of ilic color (Ranunculales), the order of macho (papaverales), order Caperacelovoy (Capparales), order of roses (Rosales), procedure for beans (Fabales), order of geracial (malvales) (Geraniales), the order of terpetnic (Terebinthales), the order of umbrella (Umbelles), the procedure for centrosened (CENTROSPERMAE), the order of buckcho-color (polygonales), the order of buccite \u200b\u200b(Fagales).

Subclass SPINOLESTALA (Sympetalae): Norichnicoral order (scrophulariales), pumpkin color (CUCURBITALES), asteractore (asterales).

Literature

· Life of plants. In 6 t. T. 6. Flower plants. / Ed. A.L. Takhtajian. - M.: Enlightenment, 1982. - 543 C, IL, 34 liters. Il.

· Forest encyclopedia: in 2 tons., T.2 / ch. ed. Vorobiev G.I.; Ed. Count: Anuchin N.A., Atrophin V.G., Vinogradov V.N. and others. - M.: OV. Encyclopedia, 1986.-631 p., Il.

Distinctive features of covered brine

Covered bridge (flowering, pestile) by time appearance on

Earth is the youngest and at the same time most

highborganized group of plants. In the process of evolution

representatives of this department appeared later than others, but they are very fast

the dominant position was taken on the globe.

The most characteristic distinctive feature of the covered bridge

is the presence of a kind of organ - a flower that is missing

representatives of other plant departments. Therefore, the covered bridges I.

they are called more often with flowering plants. The seedness is hidden,

it develops inside the pestle, in its margins, so coated

called otherwise pesting. Pollen from the coated bridge is caught not

which the pestle ends.

After fertilization of the egg from the seed, a seed is formed, and

zaurus grows into the fruit. Consequently, seeds have covered brine

develop in fruits, so this plant department is called

coated bridge.

Covenate (Angiospermae), or flower (Magnoliophyta) -

department of the most advanced higher plants having a flower. Earlier

included in the department of seed plants together with vicered. Unlike

from the last flowers of the flowering enclosed in the ward formed

accrade structures.

The flower is a generative organ of coated plants.

It consists of a flowerball and a color. On the latter are located

perianth (simple or double), androza (the totality of the stamens) and

ginetsay (aggregate of fertility). Each stitch consists of thin

stomaching thread and an extended anther in which sperm ripen.

Fruent of flowering plants is represented by a pestle that consists of

massive launching and long column, vertex extended part

which is called a stitch.

Among the covered bridges there are evergreen and leaf fall

trees, shrubs and half-workers, annual and perennial grass.

Meet epiphytesusing other plants as support

from other plants, carnivorous plants (Rosyanka, Venus Mukholovka),

catching and digesting small insects.

Covered bridges have vegetative organs providing

mechanical support, transport, photosynthesis, gas exchange, as well as stock

nutrients, and generative organs involved in sex

reproduction. The internal structure of the fabric is most difficult from all

plants; Synotoid flolam elements are surrounded by satellite cells;

almost all representatives of the coated bridges have xylene vessels.

strug and germinate. Gametophytes of flowers are extremely simplified and

miniature, which significantly reduces the duration of the breeding cycle.

They are formed as a result of the minimum amount of mitoses (three

women's Gametophyte and two men). One of the features of sex

reproduction - double fertilization when one of the sperm merges with

egg cell, forming a zygota, and the second - with the polar nuclei, forming

endosperm, serving nutrient reserves. Flower seeds

plants are enclosed in the fruit (hence their second name is coated).

The first flowering plants appeared at the beginning of the Cretace

about 135 million years ago (or even at the end of the Jurassic period). Question

the ancestor of the covered bridge is currently remaining open; most

close to them extinct blessing, however, more likely, with

bennettitis covered bridges made from one of the groups of seed

ferns. The first flowering plants were apparently

evergreen trees with primitive flowers devoid of petals;

ksilem did not have vessels.

In the middle of the chalk period, just a few million years

there is a conquest of sushi-covered sushi. One of the most important

the conditions for the rapid spread of the covered bridge were their unusually

high evolutionary plasticity. As a result of adaptive radiation,

due to environmental and genetic factors (in particular,

aneupolide and polyploidization), a huge amount was formed

different types of coated bridges included in a variety of ecosystems.

Most modern formed by the middle of the chalk period

families. The evolution of ground is closely connected with flowering plants.

mammals, birds and, especially insects. Latest play

an extremely important role in the evolution of the flower, implementing pollination:

bright coloring, fragrance, edible pollen or nectar - all this means

attracting insects.

Flower plants are common worldwide, from the Arctic to

Antarctica. The basis of their systematics is the structure of the flower and inflorescences,

pollen grains, seed, anatomy of xylems and flora. Nearly 250 thousand

types of covered bridges are divided into two classes: two-bedroom and monocoons,

differing, first of all, by the number of cotyledons in the embryos,

the structure of the sheet and flower.

Flower plants are one of the key components.

biospheres: They produce organic matter, bind carbon dioxide and

molecular oxygen is released into the atmosphere, they begin with them

most pasture power circuits. Many flowering plants

used by man for cooking, building housing,

production of various economic materials, for medical purposes.

Covered brine - the largest type of plants to which

more than half of all known species - are characterized by

clear, sharply excluding their signs. Most characteristic of them

the presence of a pestle formed by one or more structures

(macro and megalophylls) who have consolidated their edges, so in the lower

pestka parts are formed by a closed hollow product - marking, in which

the seeds (macro- and megaloprangia) are developing. After fertilization

the wound up in the fruit in which there are evolved from

seeds of seeds (or one seed). Also for covered brine

characteristic: eight-year, or derived from it, germ bag,

double fertilization, triplet endosperm forms only

after fertilization, a snap in a pestle, capturing pollen, and for

the overwhelming majority - more or less typical flower with

perianth. From anatomical signs for covered brimmed

characteristic is the presence of real vessels (trachea), while the vote

only trachetes are developed, and the vessels are extremely rare.

In view of a large number of general signs need to be assumed

monophiletic origin of covered with some more

fossil remnants of covered brine (pollen, wood) are known from

jurassic geological period. From the ninevel sediments are known

also a few reliable residues of covered bridges, and in

sediments of the middle of the chalk period they meet immediately in large

quantities and in a significant variety of forms that everyone belongs

to many different living families and even childbirth.

As alleged ancestors of the covered bridges indicated

different groups of submissions in the plant system - Keitonium,

seed ferns, Bennettitis, frown. Keitonian had zerovy

a snap, but they were formated other than that of coated; They have

there was not even the similarity of flowers, sporesophilles are simple and probably they

represent the blind branch of evolution. Bennettitis had scare

peculiar "flowers", but there were no pestles, and their seeds were only hidden

between fruitless scales, and not inside the fruits formed

megalophylls. Seed ferns did not have flowers, there was no

coated bridge.

The theory of origin of the coated brushed from the oppression assumes

that the most primitive covered bridges had small one-sex

flowers without a perianth or with an unpleasant perianth. But around the row

considerations currently consider more primitive flowers

large, rim flowers. Therefore, it can be assumed that the ancestors

modern coated brimmed were some extinct, very

(strobils) in which there were spiral on a long blossom (axis)

loose (nonsense with each other) are homogeneous

perianth, microspophilles (stamens) and megalophyll

then between seed ferns and more specialized

bennettites and civilians.

Covenateness has undoubtedly represented a big advantage

in the sense of the protection of seeds and developing seeds from any

adverse external influences and first of all from dryness

air. But one covered image is still difficult to explain the rapid

powerful development of coated and overpays by the dominant

earlier on the ground of archegonional plants. Russian Botanist M.I. Golenkin

expressed (in 1927) an interesting hypothesis about the causes of victory

covered in the struggle for existence. He assumes that

middle of the chalk period for some common cosmogonical reasons

throughout the Earth, there was a sharp change in lighting and humidity.

Thick clouds that have won the land earlier constantly, scattered and gave

access to the bright sunshine, in connection with which dryness has increased dramatically

air. The huge majority of higher archegano plants of that

time not adapted and failed to adapt to bright

lighting and dryness of air, start to die or sharply reduced areas

its propagation (except for coniferous, most xerophytic).

On the contrary, coated brushed, who had before very limited

distribution and presentation with a small number of forms, developed

ability to wear bright sunlight and dry air.

This circumstance, as well as the emergency evolutionary plasticity of them,

the ability to occur in the emergence of a variety of devices to

various external conditions and caused rapid victorious

distribution of coated over all earth and displacement earlier

prevailing groups of higher argegenial plants.

The victory of the covered bridge led to changes in the animal

population of land; Especially she had to affect fast evolution

insects, mammals and birds feeding with insects, then predatory

and fertile. In turn, the covered brimmed gradually arose

in the process of evolution, countless adaptive changes in the form,

chemical and functions due to complex and diverse

the relationships of them with the animal world. The victory is covered with brimmed

a turning point, deep revolution in the fate of the whole animal

earth's population.

On the issue of the origin of the covered bridge

different assumptions were expressed. Some believe they are for the first time

appeared on a hypothetical tropical mainland located between

America, Asia and Australia and subsequently plunged into the water

Pacific. Others consider the cradle of their area of \u200b\u200bmodern

arctic sushi, third - mountains of subtropical and moderately warm zone

northern hemisphere. Most nerds are currently considering

that primary covered bridges were woody plants that had

low trunks, monopodial branched on a few

thick branches. Of these, larger sympodial

branching trees with numerous thick and subtle branches. Of

wood forms at different times and different phylogenetic lines

shrubs, half-workers and herbal forms developed, first

perennial, then in various kinds due to CO specific conditions

climate and habitats - twilight and annuals.

Thanks to the big plasticity of the coated bridge, they have in the process

evolution developed a huge variety of vegetative bodies,

especially in the leaves, numerous metamorphoses, as well as infinite

variety in flowers and fruits. Complexity and variety of chemical

the composition and physiological reactions are also very characteristic of them.

The evolution of the flower, on the structure of which is mainly based

systematics of coated bridge, speaking in general, and schematic form

they are from flowers with a long bloody (type of cones) from riches,

actinorphic with a spiral location of free (unlighted) and

not fixed among the members, with the top urging and numerous

seeds - to cyclic flowers, zigomorphic, separation, with

strictly fixed number of more or less controversial members on

flat blossom, with lower one-minute uround and a few or one

seed. This evolution of the coated flower occurred in different

evolutionary rows of them independently of each other.

Distributed to be covered everywhere almost to the extreme limits.

vegetation and determine the nature of landscapes everywhere, except for coniferous

forests, peat swamps and some types of tundras.

In human life and economic activity

the coated brine is immeasurably greater than the remaining groups of plants.

Food, clothing, forage for livestock, aromatic, narcotic,

medicinal, tannins, rubber and guttapercha, cork and much

other is obtained from coated bridge; Material for housing, fuel

details, paper is also large

coated bridge.

Covered brimmed are divided into two classes - dicotyled and

monocoons. For dicotomy characteristic: two seeds in seed, open

conductive beams (with Cambier), saving throughout the life of the main

root (in individuals born from seeds), filament and mesh housing

leaf, 5-4-2-membered Type of Flowers. Monocotional characterized

opposite signs: one of the seedlings in the seed, closed

conductive beams (without Cambia), early fission of the main root and development

podep root system, parallel or arc dwelling,

three-colored flower type. Separate signs of one group can

meet and representatives of another group, so all

a set of signs.

The flowering plant department combines two classes: dicatular and

monocoons.

The most significant feature is the structure of the seed. But one sign

not enough to determine the affiliation of the plant to one or another

class. It is necessary to know all signs of this plant.

The class of dicotyledtic most numerous, it includes about

80% of the types of coated plants, which are combined in 325

families. Families of flowering plants are highlighted mainly on

the basis of the structure of the flower and the fetus.

The single-bedroom class includes about 25% of flowering plants. it

mostly grass. Only in a few families meet

wood forms, and those inhabit mainly in the tropics. Most

a well-groomed single-bedroom group lives in water bodies, swamps. TO

it includes a graonist, a chastush, the RTESTs. But among one-bedroom a lot

species that have reached the high level of the organization, such as cereals.

Typical family class family is a family

lily. Among the plants of this family are perennial herbs,

which are well developed rhizomes or bulbs, lancing or

linear shape leaves with arc or parallel housing. Many

from Lily Efemers or Efemeroids - have a short period of vegetation.

Flowers in lilyer large, diverse color, single or

collected in the brush. The perianth is simple, whimsical, consists of six

inwided or free leaves located in two circles. Stamen

six, also located in two circles, pestle one (of three threw

adhesive). Flawer fruit - berry or box.

Among the lilyerous many decorative plants (lilies, tulips),

food (onion, garlic), medicinal (Lily of Lily, Aloe, Poure

drug) et al.

The largest family in the one-bedroom class is cereals.

There are over 10 thousand types of cereals. They are common all over

the globe. This is a prosperous family that has reached high levels.

organizations.

Almost all cereals are grassy perennial, less often annual plants.

They constitute the basis of the herb of many plant communities: meadows,

stete and others. Bamboo bamboo is known from rustic cereals. Plants of this

families can be found on the hollow stalk - solomine with nodes and

interstices. The nodes are filled with loose cloth. Stems of cereals grow in

length as a result of cell division in intersals. Such growth is called

insert.

Classes can be found in the leaves: they are narrow, long, with parallel

housing. The sheet has a wide base in the form of a tube - vagina. It

protects against damage tender cells of intersals, due to division

which stalk grows.

For cereals, the urine root system is also characteristic. Thus

ways, cereals can be distinguished from plants of other families

peculiarities of the structure of vegetative organs (leaves, roots and stems).

Flowers from cereals small, inhabitant, are collected in spikelets. From set

spikes are formed by inflorescences: a complex spike, whisk, etc. in each

spikele from 1 to 10 and more flowers. Flower of cereal has three stamens and one

pestik, but he has no cup and a bunny. Most of Zlatkov

winding plants. Cereals have a typical fruit for this family

Grain, rich in squirrels and starch.

Breeding cereals seeds, as well as vegetatively with

roots and rooting shoots.

Cereals make up the basis of human and agricultural nutrition

animals. These include the most important feed and food cultural

plants. Wild cereals make up the main feed feed. In the tropics

bamboo and sugar cane are formed. On plantations specially

sugar cane is grown and from it are obtained sugar, rum, alcohol and

falcon. Cereals are also used for paper production, in textile,

chemical and construction industry.

In modern era, when environmental conditions are worsening,

some types of cereals were under threat of disappearance. In red

the book was listed 23 types of cereals: Kickliembi, Kickl

small-minded, Kovyl evaded, Mattik Multicolored, drinking

kovyl lested, etc.

Monocoan plants (Lat. Liliopsida.lat. Monocotyledones, eng.

monocots) - class of coated bridge, or flowering, plants, most

the numerous family of which are orchid, differing

extremely complex, beautiful colors. In second place by quantity

the species stands very important in the economic relationship family of the cereal.

Traditional Latin name for this group of plants

is an Monocotyledones, although recently, for example in the system

Kronkovista ( Cronquist.) their official name - Liliopsida. (liliopsida).

As monocoan - group rank above family, choosing titles

not limited. Article 16 of the ICBN allows as a descriptive name,

so the name formed from the typical type of group.

Traditional name monocoan, Monocotyledones or

Monocotyledoneae., comes from the fact that most embryos

group members have only one seedliness as opposed to

double colors who are usually two. From a diagnostic point of view

the determination of the amount of cotyadal is neither easily accessible

in a way, neither reliable distinctive characteristic of the plant.

The distinction of one-bedroom and dicolored was first used in

systematics of plants in the early XVIII century English naturalist J.

However, one-friendly has more visible distinctive

signs. The embryonic root comes soon ceases to grow and

replaced with apparent roots. Stem vascular bundles closed,

scattered throughout the cross section of the stem; Cambia is not, so thickening

branch. Leaves most of the stems, always without

hstops, commonly narrow and donomerval. Flowers ordinary

built along the triple type: the perianth of two three-mended circles,

the stamens are also 3 + 3, the rest of 3, less often instead of the number 3 in the flower

there are numbers 2 or 4.

Monocoons are a monofiletic group,

the history of the development of coated plants appeared at the dawn.

Ancient fossil plants that can be attributed to the monocotional,

have the age of early the chalk period.

APG II Scientific Classification System, developed by the APG Group

(eng. ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP.) Determines monocoan as one of two

largest groups among coated plants. Second group -

"Eidicota" ( eudicots.), according to the established tradition, is sometimes called

"Paleodicotes" ( palaeodicots.). Among one-bedrooms are allocated ten

orders and two families that are still not finally attributed to any

one of the orders. These orders are distributed as follows:

Main monocycle

Petrosavia family ( Petrosaviaceae.) / en: Petrosaviaceae

Order airicolovoy ( Acores.) / en: acoreles

The order is frequisco ( Alismatales.) / en: Alismatales

Sparrier order ( Asparagales.) / en: Asparagles

The order dioscopekeery ( Dioscoreales.) / en: dioscoreales

Liliece-deed order ( Liliales.) / en: liliales

Pandoic color order ( Pandanales.) / en: Pandanales

Family ( Dasypogonaceae.) / en: dasypogonaceae

The order of palm color ( Arecales.) / en: Arecales

Commodity procedure ( Commelinales.) / en: commelinales

The order is zlacology ( Poales.) / en: Poales

The procedure is genitrusive ( Zingiberales.) / en: zingiberales

A more traditional classification is the Kronkivist system

(1981), according to which all single-bedrooms broke into five subclasses with

next order:

Alismatida ( Alismatidae.)

ORDER FERFORM (Alismatales)

The order of watercourses (Hydrocharitales)

Najadales order (Najadales)

Triurian order (triuridales)

Arecides ( Arecidae.)

Palm tree order (Arecales)

CYCLANTHALES CYCLANTHALES

Pandanalees order (Pandanales)

Order Aroness (Arales)

Commodic Color ( Commelinidae.)

Commelinolic order (Commelinales)

ERIOCAULAL ORDER (ERIOCAULES)

Pro order Restional (restional)

Sytic order (Juncales)

CYPERAL ORDER (CYPERALES)

Gydatellae Order (Hydatelles)

Rogoz order (Typhales)

Ginger ( Zingiberidae.)

Bromeliev order (Bromeliales)

ZingIberales order

Lubs ( Liliidae.)

Lilieceletes order (Liliales)

Orchidales order (Orchidales)

Class Dichomotor belongs to the department Flower (Anthophyta.), or

Coated bridges ( Magnoliophyta., or Angiospermae.) Plants. This class

much more diverse and more by the amount of second class from this

department - Monocoons (Monocotiledonae. or Liliopsida.). Of the total number

flower plants per share of dwoom collapse accounts for about 80%.

Two classroom class characterized The presence of the following features

distinguishing it from one-bedroom:

1. The embryo with two seedlines.

2. The main root is well developed and saved throughout life,

therefore, the rod (less often urine) root system.

3. The stem is capable of secondary thickening of the benefit of presence

cambia; Conductive bundles open.

4. The leaves are diverse in shape and dissection, have a finger or

current housing, the shape of the edge of the sheet plate can be different.

5. Acyclic, semi-cyclic and cyclic flowers. Number

members of each circle more than 5, rarely 2, even less than 3.

To the class of disadvantaged about 200,000 species, 10,000 birth,

about 300 families (depending on the classification adopted). it

herbaceous and woody plants.

Systematics Flower plants, starting, has been engaged in the 18th century

many botany scientists, both domestic and foreign ones. All of them

made invaluable contribution to the modern building phylogenetic

(Natural) System of Flower Plant. However, the generally accepted system

there are still no classification of coated plants.

The most controversial is the question of which groups of covered bridges

the closest to the ancient ancestral forms. In systems are known

botany-phylogenetics A. Egerler and R. Vestostein for the most

primitive groups are accepted by family families and

constrapping, unwashed, anemofilic flowers (IV, birch

and etc.). In more modern systems as a primitive group

consider families with well-developed polynomials,

separated, entomophilic flowers, so-called

multiplety (Magnolia family, lutikovye and etc.). Family S.

one-frame flowers are considered secondary. Such

systems are the systems of Botany N. A. Bush, A. A. Grossheim, A. L.

TAXTHYAN, GETCHINSON (England), etc. One of the last systems, in

which takes into account the greatest number of signs, is the system of A. L.

Takhtajian (1970).

According to A. L. Takhtajan, the wadlinary class includes 7 subclasses:

Magnoliidae, Ranunculidae, Hamamelididae, Caryophyllidae, Dilleniidae,

Rosidae and Asteridae.. Within each subclass, its families are combined

in order. The whole class of dualotrol includes 71 order. First on account

encompass the most primitive families, the last -

phylogenetically more advanced.

Basic orders Two classroom class:

Separate subclass (Choripetalae): Magnoli-tart

(Magnoliales), the order of ilic color (Ranunculales), the order of macho

(Papaverales), order Caperacelovoy (Capparales), order rose

(ROsales), order of bobwood (Fabales), order of malvo-color

(Malvales), order of gerance (geraniales), the order of terrent

(Terebinthales), the order of umbrella (Umbelles), order

centrosened (Centrospermae), the order of bucking (Polygonales),

the order is buccotter (Fagales).

Symblass SPINOLESTALA (Sympetalae): ORDER ORDERCHES

(Scrophulariales), order Pumpkin color (CucurBitales), order

asterales.

Literature

Plant life. In 6 t. T. 6. Flower plants. / Ed. A.L.

Takhtajian. - M.: Enlightenment, 1982. - 543 C, IL, 34 liters. Il.

Forest encyclopedia: in 2 tons., T.2 / ch. ed. Vorobiev G.I.; Ed. count:

Anuchin N.A., Atrophin V.G., Vinogradov V.N. and others. - M.: OV. Encyclopedia,

Distinctive features of covered brine

The coated bridges have vegetative organs providing mechanical support, as well as the supply of nutrients, and the generative organs involved in sexual reproduction. The internal structure of the tissues is most difficult from all plants; Synotoid elements are surrounded by satellite cells; Almost all representatives of the covered bridge have vessels.

Men's gamets contained inside of pollen grave fall on the stitch and germinate. Gametophytes of flowers are extremely simplified and miniature, which significantly reduces the duration of the breeding cycle. They are formed as a result of the minimum amount of mitoses (three in the female Gametophyte and two men). One of the features of sexual reproduction is, when one of the sperms merges with the egg, forming the zygota, and the second - with the polar nuclei, forming an endosperm that serves as a nutrient reserves. The seeds of flowering plants are concluded in (from here the second name - coated).

The first flowering plants appeared at the beginning of about 135 million years ago (or even at the end). The question of the ancestor of the covered bridge is currently remaining open; The closest to them are extinct, however, it is more likely that, together with Bennettites, the coated bridges aligned from one of the groups. The first flowering plants were, apparently, evergreen trees with primitive flowers, devoid of petals; They did not have vessels.

In the middle of the chalk period, just a few million years occurs the conquest of sushi-covered sushi. One of the most important conditions for the rapid spread of the covered bridge was their unusually high evolutionary plasticity. As a result, the resulting environmental and genetic factors (in particular), a huge number of different types of coated bridges included in a variety of ecosystems were formed. By the middle of the Cretaceous period, most modern families were formed. The evolution of terrestrial mammals, birds and, especially insects is closely connected with flowering plants. The latter play an extremely important role in the evolution of the flower, implementing pollination: bright coloring, aroma, edible pollen or nectar - all these means of attracting insects.

Flower plants are common worldwide, from the Arctic to Antarctic. The basis of their systematics is the structure, pollen grain, the anatomy of xylems and floems. Almost 250 thousand species of covered bridge are divided into two classes: differing, first of all, by the number of cotyledons in the embryos, the structure of the sheet and flower.

The coated bridgeness undoubtedly represented a big advantage in the sense of the protection of seeds and developing seeds from any adverse external influences and primarily from air dryness. But one covered bridge is still difficult to explain the rapid powerful development of coated and the displacement of the archegonional plants that dominated earlier on Earth. Russian Botanist M.I. Glainkin expressed (in 1927) an interesting hypothesis about the causes of victory covered in the struggle for existence. He suggests that in the middle of the chalk period for some common cosmogonical reasons throughout the earth, there was a sharp change in lighting and humidity. Thick clouds that have previously stopped the earth constantly, dispelled and gave access to the bright sunshine, in connection with which the dryness of air has increased dramatically. The huge majority of the highest archegonal plants of that time, not adapted and failed to adapt to bright lighting and dry air, began to dy up or sharply reduced their distribution areas (except for coniferous, most xerophytic).

Due to the large plasticity of the coated bridge, they have developed a huge variety of vegetative organs, especially in the leaves, numerous metamorphoses, as well as an infinite variety in flower and fruits. The complexity and variety of chemical composition and physiological reactions is also very characteristic of them.

The flowering plant department unites two classes: dicotyledan and monocoons.

The most significant feature is the structure of the seed. But one sign is not enough to determine the affiliation of the plant to one or another class. It is necessary to know all signs of this plant.

Among the lilyerous many decorative plants (lilies, tulips), food (onions, garlic), medicinal (lily of the lily, aloe, a dosage dosage), etc.

Celebrates breed seeds, as well as vegetatively with the help of rhizomes and rooting shoots.

Traditional name monocoan, Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae.Comes from the fact that most members of the group have only one as opposed to which they are usually two. From a diagnostic point of view, the determination of the amount of cotyadal is neither easily accessible way nor the reliable distinguishing characteristic of the plant. The distinction of one-bedroom and dicolored was first used in the systematics of plants even at the beginning of the English naturalist.

However, one-friendly has more visual distinguishing features. It usually stops growing and replaced. Steel vascular bundles are closed, scattered throughout the cross section of the stem; No, therefore thickening stems by type or not observed. Stems are rarely branched. The leaves most of the stems, always without horses, are usually narrow and donfear. Flowers are commonly constructed along the triple type: the perianth of two three-mended circles, the stamens are also 3 + 3, the fins 3, less often instead of the number 3 in the flower there are 2 or 4 numbers in the flower.

Monocoons are a group that has arisen at the dawn of plant development history. The most ancient fossil plants that can be attributed to the monocotional, have the age of the beginning.

A more traditional classification is (1981), according to which all single-bedrooms were divided into five subclasses with the following orders.

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