Conquest Arabs and the creation of the Arab Caliphate Abstract. Arab conquest and creation of the Arab Caliphate P S

The Arabian Peninsula since ancient times was inhabited by Arab tribes. Traditionally, the overwhelming part of the population of the peninsula was the Bedouins - nomads-cattle products. To a lesser extent, agriculture was developed here, which was developed oasis. Some areas (Yemen, the Mecca region) specialized in intermediary trading with North and Northeast African countries, Mediterranean, India.

Kaaba is the main shrine of Islam. It is a stone building in the center of Al-Haram Mosque in Mecca. Kaaba with a black stone embedded in it, allegedly sent by Allah from the sky, is the main object of the pilgrimage of Muslims around the world. Pilgrims 7 times bypass around Kaaba and kiss a black stone enclosed in a silver framing.

Mosque of Omeyadov in the city of Damascus. Built in Califa Valid I (705-712). In the Middle Ages, this mosque called the Great was considered a miracle of the world. She was repeatedly subjected to robbers and fires, but today is considered one of the magnificent samples of architectural art.

Ancient Gate Baghdad.

The 50-meter minaret of the mosque of the APL Malviya in the form of a truncated cone with the outer spiral staircase in Samarra (Iraq).

Bukhara. Mausoleum Ismail Samani. IX-X centuries.

Conquering Arabs in the VII-IV centuries.

In the VII century In Arabia, the processes of the decomposition of the primitive-free building and class formation took place, the social bundle strengthened, a tribal know, seized by huge lands, large herds, slaves. In the most developed areas, slave-owned, and in some way and the early refortional relationships. There were favorable conditions for the State Association of Arabs. He largely contributed to the emergence and dissemination of the monotheistic teaching of Islam, the main idea of \u200b\u200bwhich was the unity of all Muslims (see Religion). The Muslim community has become the core of the country's political association.

At the beginning of the 30s. VII century Arabs started military campaigns that ended with the conquest of the countries of the Middle and Middle East, North Africa and Egypt. An extensive state was created - Arab Khalifat, in which in the hands of the Khalifa ("successor and deputy messenger of Allah - the Prophet Mohammed") was concentrated by secular and spiritual power.

During the military campaigns, the Arabs collided with two powerful powers of the time - Byzantia and Sasanid Iran. Weakened by a long struggle with each other, the exacerbation of domestic contradictions, they suffered a number of defeats from Arabs and gave them significant territories in Western Asia and North Africa.

In the 30-40s. VII century The Arabs were conquered by Syria and Palestine, Mesopotamia, Egypt, almost all of Northern Africa (including Barca, Tripolitania, Ipricky), Cyprus. By 651, the conquest of Iran was completed. Byzantine Small Asia has undergone numerous robbing raids from the Arabs who have taken some unsuccessful attempts to take Constantinople. At the beginning of the VIII century. The composition of the Arab state included Transcaucasia, the region of Central Asia (Maverannova - the territory between the rivers of Amu Darya and Syrdarya). In 712, the Arabs invaded India and conquered Sind (region at the lower flow of Indus), in 711-714, defeating the state of the Vestus, captured most of the Pyrenean Peninsula.

Submission of foreign land has become an important means of enrichment for Arab. Arabs received huge lands, military prey, prisoners-slaves, gathered tributes from conquered peoples. Initially, local orders, the old state apparatus remained in captured countries. The dominant socio-economic relations did not undergo any significant changes. The existing system of exploitation of the peasantry characteristic of the early refortel society has been preserved; in agriculture And the Arab craft know widely used the work of slaves captured in military campaigns. Rabbar labor was used in state work - digging and cleaning channels, etc. (see slavery, slave trade).

In conquered countries, the gradual arabization of the local population began. Especially active this process proceeded there, where long before the VII century. Pretty extensive groups of Arabs lived, in Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt. Transcaucasia, Iran and Central Asia have not been an Arabity. The Arabs perceived many elements of the culture of conquered peoples.

Together with the resettlement of Arabs in an extensive territory, Islam was distributed. In all parts of the caliphate, the number of Muslim religion adherents increased. In relation to representatives of other religions and cults - Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians - was observed by the principle of violence. The inners were not pursued, but used limited rights compared to Muslims.

At the beginning of the 2nd half of the VII century. Caliphate becomes the arena of acute internal political struggle between representatives of various noble Arab births. The internecided war marked the beginning of the split Muslims on the supporters of Ali (the son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammed) - Shiites and his opponents - Sunni, led to the emergence of the movement of Harijites.

After the murder of Ali, the dynasty of Omeyadov comes to power, which representing one of the births of the Kuresh tribe. Damascus becomes the capital, Syria - the metropolitan province of the Khaliphat. During the rule of the dynasty of Omeyadov (661-750), the state reaches great success in socio-economic development. Improvement of commodity-money relations contributes to the introduction of a single monetary system in all calipheat, measures are being carried out to streamline the tax and supply system, the centralization of the state apparatus. Wide distribution gets arabicwhich contains office work.

In the middle of the VIII century. In the Khalifat, the domestic political struggle again aggravated. This time, Abbasids were made with claims to the throne - rich Iraqi landowners, descendants of Abbas, Uncle of the Prophet Mohammed. With abbasids, it was decided to transfer the capital of the Khaliphat from Damascus. To this end, a new city was founded - Baghdad, officially called Madinat As-Salam, which means the "city of the world". Caliphate of the period of the reign of Abbasides (750-1258) is called Baghdad. At the first abbasid caliphs, including Haruna Ar-Rashid (786-809), the Khalifat was quite strong and relatively centralized feudal-theocratic state. He continued to conduct conquering hiking (Sicily, Malta, Crete were captured, led continuous wars with his long-standing enemy - Byzantia. In the state of Abbasids, the processes of further improvement of feudal relations were processed. Increased oppression and operation of peasants, artisans, the labor population of cities, illegal entries and oppression of the administration caused major folk movements, which often passed under religious slogans. The uprisings flashed in different parts of the caliphate. A special force and perseverance was distinguished by the uprising under the leadership of Munanna (776-783) in Central Asia, the Babempa rebellion (816-837), which covered South Azerbaijan, Armenia and West Iran, the rebellion of the Zingja - the black slaves in Iraq brought from Africa, which were initially supported Craftsmen and Bedouins (869-883), a carmatical religious movement, shooking caliphate in the IX - early X century. and held under the slogans of social equality and justice.

In the 1st quarter of the IX century. The political breakdown of the Arab Caliphate began, whose unity was held only on military power. There is a rapid growth of large land ownership of individual feudalists and families, the strengthening of their positions in political life, which ultimately led to separatist aspirations, to the separation of individual parts of the caliphate and their gradual transformation into independent states. For example, Horacean, preserving the nominal dependence on the Baghdad Caliph, was actually controlled by members of the Tahirid dynasty (821-873), the Turkic Dynasty of Tulunidov (868-905) came to power, in the territory of modern Morocco - Idrisida (788-974), Tunisia and Algeria - Aglabid (800-909). In IX century Local feudal statehood was revived in Central Asia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia. The caliphate actually collapsed into separate parts, and failed to continue to restore its former power. The stronghold of the power of the Abbasid rulers became Iraq. In 945, the Western Union Dynasty of Bundov seized Baghdad, deprived Abbasides political power, Saving only spiritual power behind them. Finally, the Khalifat ceased to exist in the middle of the XIII century, when, in 1258, Mongolian conquerors conquered his capital.

During the existence of the Arab Caliphate, a high level of development reached a culture. The consequence of the long cultural interaction of Arabs with their conquered people was the interpenetration of elements of different crops, their mutual enrichment. On this basis, the richest medieval Arab culture arose. The names of the wonderful Arab medieval poets and writers are known - Abu Nuwas (762-815), Omar Ibn Abu Rabia (644-712), Abu Tammama (approx. 796-843), Abu-Faradah al-Isfahani (897-967) Al-Mutanabby (915-965), Abu Firase (932-967) and others. Based on the recycled plots of Persian, Indian and other fairy tales, a popular collection of fascinating fairy tales "Thousand and One Night" began to take shape. The classic literary Arabic language and writing based on the Arab alphabet received widespread. Accumulated and improved scientific knowledgeMathematics, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, geography, philosophy, historical and philological disciplines have developed. Many cities have become major scientific and cultural centers. In Baghdad, it even had a special institution - "Byte al-Hikma" ("House of Mudrosti"), in which the richest library and observatory had. Baghdad became the center of translation activities, scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic.

Many Cities of Caliphate were famous for the whole world as the largest craft production and trade centers, known for magnificent monuments of medieval Arabic architecture. This is Baghdad and Basra, Damascus and Jerusalem, Mecca and Medina, Kufa and Nishapur, Bukhara and Samarkand, Alexandria, Kairuan and Cordoba and many other cities.

The origin of the Arab letter originates from the alphabet created by the Phoenicians who lived on the coast, which occupied the territory of the current Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. Since the Phoenicians were merchants who led trade affairs throughout the Mediterranean, then their alphabet affected the development of the Alphans of the Mediterranean region.

Burial inscription from An-Namar (328g.n.)

The Phoenician letter developed in several directions: one of them - and later the modern Latin alphabet. Another direction was reflected in the Aramaic alphabet: which was divided into a modern Jewish alphabet and a Nabatoe letter. From the Nabatie Letter, which entered the use of the second century BC, on the territory of modern Jordan, there have been several written systems, including the traditional Arabic letter and some other types of Arabic letters.

The history of the development of Arabic writing

Please note that the Early Arabic alphabet has no points (1), while in a modern Arab letter they are. These points appeared later to help those who study, learn to distinguish sounds (in the early Arabic alphabet there were 15 different letters to designate 28 sounds).

But later, heading and gamza (2) were introduced, which are already beginning to meet in the letter from the second half of the seventh century. Initially, it was done with the help of a system of red dots, which were introduced by legend Umayad (Umayad) - Ruler Iraq. However, they were easily confused with points that differ letters (3), so 100 years later, a system was adopted, which exists and so on.

Thanks to the influence of Islam, the Arabic alphabet has become one of the most common writing systems in the world, which can be found in the regions of Africa, Western and Central Asia, as well as in ethnic communities in East Asia, in Europe and America. It was originally used to record Arabic, the Arabic alphabet was adopted in a number of other languages: Persian, Pashto, Urdu and others.

In general, there are two options for the Arabic alphabet: a cufic letter and us. The cufic font has angular features, which suggests that it was used to record on hard surfaces as a tree and a stone, while us had a hitch feature. Cufic font - the most ancient arab fontsSince it was used at the dawn appearance of Islam to record the first copies of the Quran. Below is an example of a cufic letter. This is part of the memorial plate dated 11 V.N., found in Toledo, Spain (on the territory of once owned by the Arabs).

To 11 c. A font appeared, which gradually pushed out a cofiment, while a popular letter for rewriting the Quran, as well as the compilation of other written documentation. Modern Arabic alphabet developed precisely from the cufic style of the letter.

The Arabic alphabet recorded by the fonts is given below.

One of characteristic features Arab Alphabet: Various forms of writing one letter. Depending on the position of the letter in the word: at the beginning of the word, late, or middle (intermediate form). It should be noted that if the word consists of one letter, an isolated shape of the letter for writing is used.

As in other alphabets that occurred from the Protosina Letter, there are no letters denoting vowels in Arabic. However, there is a system of calling. Brief vowels are represented by diacritical signs over or under the letter (see). Long vowels are represented using diacritical signs to indicate short vowels plus letters alif., wA:w., ya: To designate sounds, and, accordingly. (Note: In the following example, a large point is not a diacritical sign, but part of the letter nun.)

In addition to the heading, there are also several other diacritics in Arabic alphabet. Gamza, similar to C, denotes a solid attack (letter used to designate a solid attack alif. But now she has become a kind of "aggregate" in words starting with vowels). For gamza Need a "reference" letter ( alif. , wA:w. and ya:). Another diacritical sign: suku:n.which is similar to a circle and put on the letter to designate the lack of vowels. Finally, a diacritical sign shaddawhich is similar to the letter W, indicates the doubling of the consonant.

Arabic number system:

Very interesting resource for the study of the Arab alphabet, writing and sound (audio) -

Caliphate as a medieval state Foreigned as a result of the association of Arab tribes, the center of the settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and Northeast Africa).

A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood from Arabs in the VII century. There was a religious color of this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam translated from Arabic and means "legend himself" to God). The political movement for the union of tribes under the slogans of refusal of paganism, a majority, objectively reflecting the trends of the nucleation of a new system, got the name "Hanifsky".

The search for preachershanifes of the new truth and the new God, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, are primarily connected with the name of Mohammed. Mohammed (about 570-632), scattered as a result of a successful shepherd, an orphan from Mecca, on which "declared revelations", recorded then in the Qur'an, proclaimed the need to establish a cult of a single God-Allah and a new public order that excluded tribal retail. The head of the Arabs was to become a prophet - "The Messenger of Allah on Earth."

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Calls of early Islam to social justice (restriction of usury, the establishment of alms to the poor, the liberation of slaves, honesty in trade) caused the displeasure of the tribal merchant nobility of "Revelations" Mohammed, which forced him to escape with the group of closest associates in 622 from Mecca to Yasrib (later - Medina , "City of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including nomads-Bedouins. Here the first mosque was erected, the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this resettlement and separate existence, the named name "Hijra" (621-629), summer-numbers on the Muslim calendar begins.

Mohammed argued that Islamic doctrine does not contradict two previously common monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirms and clarifies them. However, at that time it became clear that Islam contains something new. It was quite clearly shown by his rigidity, and sometimes fanatical intolerance in some issues, especially in the affairs of power and to power. According to the Uslam doctrine, the power of religious is inseparable from secular and is the basis of the latter, in connection with which Islam demanded the same unconditional obedience to God, the Prophet and "those who have power."

For ten years, in the 20-30s. VII century The organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina was completed state Education. Mohammed himself was in him spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military units, the Community began to fight opponents of a new socio-political structure.

The nearest relatives and associates of Mohammed were gradually consolidated into a privileged group, which received exceptional right to power. After her rows, after the death of the Prophet began to choose the new sole leaders of Muslims - Caliphs ("Deputy Prophet"). Some groupings of Islamic birth nobility formed the opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only inheritance and only for the descendants (and not apartments) of the prophet.

The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteous" caliphs, supputed Islam discontent among certain layers and completed the political association of Arabia. In the VII - the first half of the VIII century. Vast territories from former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain have been conquered. The Arab army entered into the territory of France, but was broken by Knights Karl Martella in the battle of Poita in 732

In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, usually allocate two periodsthat meet the main stages of the development of the Arab medieval society and the state:

• damasky, or the period of the Board of the Dynasty of Omeyadov (661-750);
• baghdad, or the reign of the Abbassid dynasty (750-1258).

Omoyyad dynasty (from 661), which implemented Spain's context, transferred the capital to Damascus, and following them abbasid dynasty (From the descendants of the Prophet named Abba, from 750) for 500 years the rules from Baghdad. By the end of the X century. The Arab Der-Zhava, which blinked to this nations from Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphate - Abbasides in Baghdad, Fatimides in Cairo and Omayjdov in Spain.

The Khalif Garun Al-Rashid, who became one of the characters "thousands and one night", and his son al-Mamoun became the most famous from the abbasides. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns about spiritual and secular enlightenment. Naturally, in the role of caliphs, they were engaged in the problems of the spread of the new faith, perceived by them themselves and their subjects as a commandment to live in equality and the universal fraternity of all truly believers. The duties of the ruler in this case it was a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined care for administration, finance, justice and troops with support for enlightenment, art, literature, on-uki, as well as trade and commerce.

Organization of power and management in the Arab Calipheat

The Muslim Power Some time after Mohammed remained theocracy in the sense of recognition by its true ownership of God (the state property was called God's state) and in the sense of the desire to manage the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the Prophet was also called Rasul, those. Messenger).

The first environment of the prophet-ruler was compiled from mujahirov (Exiles, Be-Flashing with the Prophet from Mecca) and ansarov (assistants).

Characteristic features of a Muslim public system:

1. 1. the dominant position of state ownership of land with the extensive use of slave labor in state farm (irrigation, mines, workshops);
   2. government exploitation of peasants by rent tax in favor of the ruling top;
   3. religious and state regulation of all spheres of public life;
   4. lack of clearly pronounced texts, special status in cities, any freedoms and privileges.

The legal provision was determined by the religion, differences in the legal status of Muslims and Nemumulman (Zimmiev) were made to the fore.

At the first stage of development, the Khalifat was a relatively centralized theocratic monarchy. In the hands of the Caliph, the spiritual (Imamat) and secular (emirate) power was concentrated which was considered indivisible and unlimited. The first caliphs were elected to Muslim to know, but quite quickly the power of the Khalifa began to be transferred at his testamental order.

In the future, the main adviser and the highest official at the Califa was the Vizier:

1. with widespread power or
2. with limited powers, i.e. Only the executing orders of the Khalifa.

In the early calipheat, the appointment of a limited authority was usually practiced. An important officials at the courtyard also included the head of the personal guard of the Khalifa, the police head and a special official who oversees other officials.

The central bodies of the public administration were special government office chancers - sofas:

• • the sofa of military cases conducted the equipment and arms of the army;
  • the sofa of the internal affairs controlled the financial authorities engaged in accounting by tax and other revenues, for this purpose collected the necessary statistical information, etc.;
  • the sofa of the postal service was delivered by mail and public goods, led the construction and repair of roads, caravan sheds and wells. Moreover, this institution actually performed the functions of the secret police.

As the functions of the Arab state expands, the central state apparatus has become more complicated, the total number of central departments grew.

Local bodies of the State Administration of the Arab Caliphate

The system of local government bodies throughout the VII-VIII centuries. Passed significant changes.

Initially, the local official apparatus in the conquered countries remained intact, the old methods of management remained.

As the authorities strengthen the rulers of the Khaliphat rulers there was an ordering of the local administration according to the Persian model. The territory of the Caliphate was divided into provinces, managed, as a rule, by military governors - Emirs that were responsible only before Caliph. Emirs were usually appointed by Khalifa from among their approximate. However, there were emirs appointed from representatives of local nobility from the former rulers of the conquered territories. Maintaining Emirov was armed forces, a local administrative and financial and police apparatus. Emirs had helpers - Naib.

Small administrative units in Khalifat (cities, villages) were managed by officials of various ranks and items. Often, these functions were pinned on the leaders of local Muslim religious communities - Starishin (Sheikh).

More details

After the death of Mohammed, the head of the state in the rank of a substitute, a rich merchant and a friend of pro-rock Abu Bakr, who managed at first, without Vesira (Supreme Sick Member from Ansarov). Mujahir Omar accepted the court. Another Mujahir, Abu Ukaida, began to lead finances. This is the difference of separate management of administrative, judicial and finance cases began to imitate in subsequent. Omar, already being ha-bodies, took the title of Emir (military man) Orthodox. Under it, the chores from Hijra (resettlement in Me-Dina, dated 622 g) was introduced. During the Osman, a canno-nation was carried out (a formal editorial board) of the text of the Quran was made.

According to the Testament of the Prophet, the coran besides the liturgical goals, I had a purpose as a guide to the administration of the Rosto-Dius. However, during Oshan, the right to impose punishments (Huduzh) was taken away from judges (Kadiii) and transferred to Sultan - a self-adjustable, the governor of the Khalifa. This step is explained by the fact that the punitive (punishment) right in the Quran is represented only by a minor number of instructions and requirements (total Oco-Lo 80), and it was fraught with the accusation of a caliph or judge for STI-Hu Kuran about "seeking not on the book of God" ( Suras 5.48 and 5.51) and even a possible uprising under the slogan of Jihad (war per faith).

30 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was divided into three large sects, or flows:

• • sunnitov (relying in Bo-Gorovlovsky and redeference on Sunna - a collection of legends about the words and actions of the Prophet);
  • shiites (considered themselves more accurate followers and expressives of the prophet's glances, as well as more accurate performers of the prescriptions of the Quran);
  • harijitov (We took the policies and practice of the two first ha-bodies - Abu Bakra and Omar).

With the expansion of the boundaries of the state of Islamic theological and lawystone constructions were influenced by more educated foreigners and inners. This affected the Sunny and closely connected with him Fickha (legislative).

IN Omoyiji Khalifattewho had contact with the Roman cultural heritage and works of Greek authors, there was a layer of people who became interested in the roses of theology and laws on their own and out of connection with the ruling class and his apparatus. The laws of such a wide profile could be the judges in the service of individual rulers, but could have been very critical servants, considering and proving that the rulers would depart from the requirements of "God-stroke right."

Abbasida Also tried to reckon with the opinions of the lawyers. Decisions of the laws were not introduced into practice immediately and directly, but only inspired, since the rulers themselves elected them as a doctrinal basis for their political or judicial acts. In practice, the laws were discussed and generalized much more than practical lawyers in the modern sense "they were interested in and recognized as authoritative advisers in the field of rituals and rites, etiquette and moral commandments. The God-stroke right extended, so for the whole way of life and became in The strength of this "gloomy lifestyle".

With abbasids and their governors, the mosque from the middleness of the state of state life, including reasons, was transformed into liturgical institutions. With such establishments, the initial schools of training for the alphabet and the Koran. He who knew the poems of the Quran was considered to be completed. Some of the elementary schools, apparently, were not only spiritual, but also secular (children's children studied, the ban on it was introduced in the middle of the IX century). People of science and philosophers first group were in mosques and engaged with separate inquisitive people here and in other places.

In some mosques, the theological faculties arose. Such was, for example, the Faculty, and then the University of Mesh Al Azhar in Cairo, which grew up from the school when a mosque was built in the X century. With some mosques, schools appeared with cashels for students and audiences for lectures (Madrasa - a place of exercise, from Daras - to study). These schools are previously mentioned at the East East of the Muslim world, in Turkestan, where they are in Nicli, apparently, under the influence of Buddhist monastic practice (Vihar). Then they appear in Baghdad, Cairo, Marks. The oldest inscription on the Bukhara Madrasa (XV century) contains a saying that sounded a dissonance with the subsequent and partly the modern practice of schooling: "The desire for knowledge is the duty of every Muslim and Muslims."

The emergence of the caliphate is closely related to the emergence of such a world religion as Islam, which appeared in the 7th century. At the origins of creating such a state as the Arab Khalifat, the prophet Muhammed, who confessing the monotheism, declared himself a prophet and in the city of Hajiza created a community from the townspertsev.

Gradually expanding the sphere of his influence, Muhammed managed to lay the foundation for such a powerful state as the Arab Caliphate. By purchasing every year more and more advocates, Muslims were able to conquer a number of states, which formed such a powerful Asian state, which was the Arab Caliphate.

Why did the empire called the Khalifat?

The formation of the caliphate went to the strengthened pace after the death of the Prophet Mohammed. The word "calipheat" itself has several values:

• This is the name of the state, at the head of which the Caliph stands, that is, the fault of the caliph;
• Religious and political organization, all power in which Khalifa belongs.

Arab Khalifat existed from 632 to 1258 years, during its existence, achieved tremendous success, both in the art of war and in culture and science. The history of the caliphate has 3 main periods:

1. Began in 632. This period is characterized by the predominance of the so-called "Pure Arab Spirit" and the righteousness of the Board of 4 Califers. At that time, Arabs valued the valor, honor and glory. The Caliphate Map for this period has increased significantly, since many land has been conquered;
2. The period of the dynasty of Omeadov. Also characterized by numerous military campaigns;
3. Accession, dawn and decay of the abbasid dynasty.

Here is a list of historical caliphas who have real power:

• Arab Khalifat, which existed until 1258;
• Righteous calipheat. Existed from 630 to 661;
• Omeyad khalifat. Its existence has been launched from 661 to 750 years;
• Cordic calipheat. This empire was located in the territory of the modern states of Spain and Portugal. Cordic Caliphate was formed in 929 and existed until 1031;
• The Abbasid Khalifat was formed in 750 and existed until 1258. Over the years, this calipht fell under the power of conquerors.

Although, in essence, all these caliphs besides Cordovsky is the same Arab Caliphate, however, they are made separately.

Epoch of the Board of Election Caliphs

After the death of the Prophet Mohammed, the country began to tease the disputes, the essence of which came down to the one who will become a new caliph of the mighty empire. In the end, the closest person from Muhammed's environments was chosen - Abu Bakr As Saddick. Being a zealous Muslim, he began his board with the announcement of war to all wrong, who after the death of Mohammed passed out to the Litsefrorma Musailim. After some time, Khalif Abi Bakr As-Saddik broke the fortied army of the wrong army in the battle during Arkab, won the new extensive territories for his empire. The following elected caliphs continued to expand the boundaries of their empire, until the last of them Ali Ibn Abu Talib did not be a victim of Harijitov, who were apostates from the main branch of Islam.

The next Caliph Muavia I captured power by force and appointed his son's successor, putting the beginning of the hereditary monarchy.

Development of the Arab Empire to Battle for Poitiers

Khalif Muavia I, who appointed the successor to his son, ruthlessly straightened with all the opponents of Islam. His son Yazid I spread the boundaries of the empire even more, but was convicted by the people for killing the grandson of the prophet Mohammed. His son lasted in power no more than a year, after which Khalifa became the representative of the filth of marvanids.

The Arab Empire during this period seized huge territories in India, Afghanistan, in the Caucasus, and even part of France turned out to be in the hands of Arabs. In Europe, it was possible to stop the conquerors only in the 8th century a great commander of Frankov Karl to Martel. His troops were able to break up much superior enemy forces in the battle when Poitiers.

The state system of the empire during this period is characterized by the appearance of the caste of warriors. Arabs although they lived on the captured territories, but their lives differed not much from life in a military camp - at any time it was necessary to expect an attack of the enemy. This very few contributed to the next Khalif Umar I. It was he who made the true militant church from the warriors of Islam. Anyone who did not accept Muslims were subject to immediate destruction.

Closer to the end of this period the number of military hikes has decreased. The role of professional warriors has decreased, and they gradually began to turn into landowners. Since previously there was a ban on the purchase of land warriors, they were forced to spend their entire lives in battles. After removing the prohibition, the number of landlords has increased dramatically.

Caliphate of the Abbasid Dynasty and the weakening of the caliphate

The abbasid dynasty caliphate is a real "golden age" in the history of the development of the Arab state. Memories of this time is still proud of all Muslims. In this era, not political power, but a religious influence, was published.

Abbasids contributed to the development of the state, many of the world famous for the whole world of scientists, commander, historians, doctors, poets and merchants appeared in the era of their reign. The Arab chronicles and merchants traveled the whole world, amounted to many cards.

Already in the 9th century, in the Arab Khalifat, the foundations of those processes were laid, which ultimately led to its destruction. Caliph Mutasim, who began to prepare before the arrival of power began to prepare, gaining a personal guard of Turks for himself. For this, he first bought all Turkic slaves in Baghdad. After coming to power, he continued to allocate his Turkic guard, which over the years has become similar to the Roman Pretorian Guard. Gradually, the Turkic Guard became so influential that he dictated her conditions to caliphams, which actually lost real power.

In the same period, Persians, feeling the weakness of the Arab Caliphate, began to raise the uprisings, which ultimately led to Iran's omit from the Empire. Centralized power has been so weakened that Egypt and Syria also gained independence. Other states that were part of the Arab Caliphate also stated their rights to independence.

Disintegration of Khaliphata

Since the power of the caliphs seriously weakened, starting from 847, the rulers tried to enlist the support of the clergy, so that they influenced the people. The period of persecution of all branches of science began, not excluding even mathematics. Scientists were declared enemies Islam and mercilessly destroyed. Nothing good did not come out. The clever people left the caliphate, and the remaining unable to somehow influence the situation.

Already at the beginning of the 10th century, the Turkic Guard fully seized power in the country, leaving caliphs only Baghdad and loud titles. Soon the Buid dynasty, noting the weakening of the caliphate, gathered the army and received power over the empire for almost 100 years, although the former caliphs were still legally considered the rulers of the country.

In the 11th century, power in the Arab Caliphate seized the Seljuk Turks, which practically destroyed Muslim civilization. After 200 years, the territory of the once mighty state was again looted by the next invaders. This time it was Mongols, who finally destroyed the Arab Caliphate.

The most famous Arabic Caliph

Baghdad Caliph Harun AR Rashid was the most famous caliph in the history of the Arab state. It is believed that it is with it that the Arab Califat has reached the top of development. The ruler was very fagged to various scientists, poets and writers. However, the ruler is very developed in the spiritual sphere, was completely unsuitable as a military leader or a rigid administrator. With his board, the country was provided by the hands of officials who were in a hurry to fill their own pockets. It is precisely known that Harun AR Rashid served as a sample of a Khalifa from the book "Thousand and One night" famous for the whole world.

Despite all the minutes of the ruler, it was he who was able to assemble the world's achievements of the famous world cultures of various eras in his own country, uniting them on the basis of Arabic. With Haruna, Ar Rashid empire ceased expansion, so trading began to grow violently. Since the rich state required many different goods that were not in the Arab State, the trade was the impetus for the development of navigation. Various crafts and art began to develop. In those days, the Arab masters became famous as the best gunsmiths. Famous Damascus sabers and other richly decorated weapons appreciated by weight of gold.

Cordic Caliphate, his flourishing and fall

Cordic Caliphate was founded by one of the descendants of Omeyad, who was forced to leave the Arab Khalifat. Losting ABB AD-Rahman I in 756 took the title of Emir. In an effort to restore your power, he subjugated all small rulers in modern Portugal and Spain. His descendant ABD AR-Rahman III in 929 solemnly proclaimed himself by Khalif. It was during the reign of this caliph and his son, the Cordin Califat reached his highest dawn.

Caliphate warriors were horrified on all medieval Europe, and the standard of living of the caliphate was much superior to the European standard of living of that time. Often, the Europeans laughed at the Califri warriors, which observed hygienic procedures, calling them "cleanly".

At the beginning of the 11th century, Cordin Caliphate lost a strong centralized power and broke up into a number of small emirates.

Arab Khalifat today

Today you can observe the attempt to revive the Arab Caliphate. The "Islamic state of Iraq and Levanta" grouping "Islamic state of Iraq and Levanta" has long already announced to the whole world, which creates a new calipheat, which will exceed its glory to all achievements of the medieval Arab caliphate. Taking advantage of permanent swords of tribes and religious groups, the bandits captured part of the territory of Syria and Iraq. Announced the creation of the Islamic state, the group proclaimed its leader Caliph, and suggested all the faithful Muslims to swear to loyalty to the new Khalifa of all Muslims Abu Barda Bagdadi. Loudly stating his rights to terrorist attacks around the world, the group tried to legalize the seizure of Iraq's territories on the political map of the world.

Nevertheless, the claims of the extremist group on absolute power not only in the region, but also all over the world, gave rise to discontent among other gangster and religious groups. For example, the famous Al-Qaida, after several attempts to direct the development of the newly minted caliphate in line with his interests, completely renounced the "Islamic state".

Even such serious states as the UAE and Saudi Arabia, perceived statements by the Islamic state as a personal insult. Special discontent shows the King of Saudi Arabia, who has the title "Keeper of two shrines", which, in the opinion of many Muslims, is almost equivalent to the title of Khalif.

Military actions against the Islamic state

The US troops, dissatisfied with the aggressive actions of the newly minted caliphate, have long been a war with an Islamic state. It seemed the impression that America was not interested in the end of this conflict. Otherwise, how can one be explained by the fact that one of the most powerful world powers could not deal with a bunch of gangsters who have brought themselves to the rulers of the world.

By intervening in this conflict in 2015, Russia inflicted a number of shocks on the positions and objects of the Islamic state in Syria. By December 2016, Russian aviation performed more than 30,000 combat departures, destroying more than 62,000 enemy objects. On December 6, 2017, the Deputy Minister of Defense of Russia V. Gerasimov said that the territory of Syria was fully cleaned by the militants of the Islamic state.

Arab Khalifat made invaluable contribution to world culture. Until now, people throughout the world read the famous poets of that era. The attempt of terrorists to revive calipheat at present, leaning on gross power, it looks just ridiculous.

Historical backgrounds

The initial core of the Khaliphat was created by the Prophet Mohammed at the beginning of the 6th century in Hijaz (West Arabia) Muslim community - Umma. As a result of Muslim conquests, a huge state was created, which included the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, most of the Transcaucasia (in particular Armenian Highlands, Caspian Territories, Colchish Lowland, as well as Area Tbilisi), Central Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Most of the Pyrenean Peninsula, Sind.

From the base of the caliphate () to the Abbasid dynasty ()

This period includes the era of the first 4 khalifes, "the right way", (AR-Rashidin) - Abu Bakra (632-634), Umar (634-644), Usman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) and the domination of Omeyadov (661-750).

Arab conquest

According to its size, their empire, which formed in less than a hundred years, surpassed the Roman, and it turned out to be very amazing that at the beginning, after the death of Mohammed, it was possible to fear that even those small successes of Islam, which he had reached in Arabia. Muhammad, dying, did not leave the heir, and after his death (632), there was a dispute between Meccans and media on his successor. In the process of discussions, the Caliph was chosen by Abu Bakr. Meanwhile, with the news of the death of Muhammad, almost all Arabia, except Mecca, Medina and Taif, immediately moved away from Islam. With the help of believers and Meccans, Abu Bakr managed to return an extensive, but disconnected Arabian back to Islam; Most of all helped him in this so-called Sword "Sword of Allah" - Experimental commander Khalid Ibn Al-Valid, who only 9 years ago broke the prophet with a grief care; Khalid broke the 40,000th army of the followers of the Musaylima false prophet in so-called. "Death Fence" at the acrab (633). Immediately on the pacification of the uprising of Arab Abu Bakr, continuing the policy of Muhammad, led them to war against the possessions of Byzantine and Iranian.

The limits of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the IEMEYAD AD-Rahman I was put in Spain the first beginning () of the independent Cordovsky emirate, who from 929 officially titus "Califat" (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the greatness of the Khalifa Ali and therefore equally hostile to abbasids, and Omeyads, founded the Alidian Dynasty of Idrisides (-), the capital of which was the city of Tudga; The rest of the north shores of Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost for the Abbasid Caliphate, when the governor of Aglab was appointed by Harun Ar-Rashid, which was the founder in Kairuan Aglabid dynasty (-). Renew the same abbasic policies against Christian or other countries, abbasids were not necessary, and although at times they had military clashes and on the borders of the eastern, and the northern (such as two unsuccessful Mamun's campaigns to Constantinople), however, in general, Khalifat lived peacefully.

There is such a feature of the first abbasids as their despotic, heartless and more often insidious cruelty. Sometimes, like the founding of the dynasty, it was an open subject of caliph pride (the nickname "bloodyman" was elected by Ababas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the tricky al-Mansur, who loved to enjoy the people in the hypocritical clothes of piousness and justice, preferred, where you can, act in cunning and executed the hazardous people, first putting their caution with abandoned promises and merities. Al-Mahadi and Haruna Ar-Rashid, the cruelty was cruentized by their generosity, however, the treacherous and fierce overthrow of the Vizir's Barmakide family, an extremely useful for the state, but the famous ultimate urid on the Lord of Haruna is one of the disgusting acts of Eastern despotism. It is necessary to add that the system of torture was introduced into the abbasis. Even the Mother's Limit Philosopher and its two successors are too free from reproaching in Tharancy and Craskoard in relation to people unpleasant for them. The Kremer finds ("Culturgesch. D. Or.", II, 61; SRV. Muller: "East. Isl.", II, 170) that the first abbasids are noted signs of hereditary cesarial madness, which the descendants are even more intensified.

In justification, it would be only possible to say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy, in which the countries of Islam were located during the watervators of the Abbasid dynasty, worn by adherents of overthrown omeyadov, enhanced alida, predatory Harijitov and not cease to rebel on the northern outskirts of the state with various Persian sectors of radical senses The terrorist measures were, perhaps, and a simple necessity. Apparently, Abbas Abbas so understood the meaning of his nickname "bloody man." Due to the formidable centralization, which he managed to introduce a heartless person, but the Genial Policy of Al-Mansur, the subjects were able to enjoy inner tranquility, and government finances were delivered brilliantly. Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the calipheat dates from the same cruel and insidious mansura (Masidi: "Golden meadows"), which, despite his notorious misfortune, belonged to science with encouragement (bearing in mind, first of all, practical, medical purposes) . But, on the other hand, it remains undoubted that the Khalifat flourishing could hardly be possible if Suffachi, Mansur and their successors were ruled by the state directly, and not through the talented vizer family of Persian Barmakides. So far, this family is not lowered () Unproval Harun Ar-Rashid, who has gone to her care, some of her members were the first ministers or close advisors of the Khalifa in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were on important state positions in the provinces (like FADL ), and together managed, on the one hand, to support for 50 years the desired balance between Persians and Arabs, who gave the caliphant to his political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the old Sassanid life, with its public device, with its culture, with her mental motion.

"Golden Age" of Arab culture

It is commonly called this culture of Arabic, because the Arabic language has been made for all peoples of the Khaliphat, they say therefore: "Arabic art", "Arabic Science ", etc.; But in essence, it was most of all the remains of the culture of Sassanid and in general Staroperside (which, as you know, also perceived a lot from India, Assyria, Babylon, and, indifference, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the Caliphate, we are seeing the development of the remains of the Culture of Byzantine, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - the culture of the Roman and Roman-Spanish, - and uniformity in them are unnoticed if they exclude their links - Arabic. It is impossible to say that inherited by the Khalifat of someone else's culture rose with the Arabs qualitatively: the architectural buildings of Iranian-Muslims stand below the Starbarian, equally, Muslim products from Silka and wool, homemade utensils and decorations, despite their charm, are inferior to products by ancient.

But in Muslim, the Abbasid period in the extensive combined and ordered state, with carefully furnished ways, the report increased demand for Iranian items, the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with the neighbors allowed to develop a wonderful foreign exchange trade: with China through Turkestan and - by the Sea - through the Indian archipelago, with Volzhsky Bulgarians and Russia through the Kingdom of Khazar, with the Spanish Emirate, with all southern Europe (except, perhaps, Byzantium), with Eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, an ivory and negros were exported), etc. The main port of Khaliphat was Basra. The merchant and industrialist are the main characters of Arab fairy tales; Various high-ranking faces, military leaders, scientists, etc. It was not ashamed to add the nickname of Attar to their titles), Hayyat ("Tailor"), Javhariya ("Jeweler") and so on. However, the nature of the Muslim Iranian industry is not so much satisfaction of the practical needs, how much luxury. Main Production Items - Shell Fabrics (Kiese-Muslin, Atlas, Moir, Parcel), Weapons (Sabls, Daggers, Kolchugi), Embroidery on canvas and skin, work praises, carpets, shawls, chased, engraved, carved ivory and metals, Mosaic works, faience and glass products; Less often Pure practical products - paper, cloth, cloth and camel wool.

The welfare of the agricultural class (for considerations, however, applied, not democratic) was raised by the restoration of irrigation channels and dams, which during the last Sassanids were launched. But even by the consciousness of the Arabic writers themselves, the caliphs could not bring the folk support to such a height, which was achieved by the applied system of Hoshrov I Anushirvana, although caliphs were ordered to translate Sassanid Cadastral books to Arabic.

The Persian Spirit seizes the Arabic poetry, which, now instead of Bedouin songs, gives the sophisticated works of the Basri Abu Nuwas ("Arabic Heine") and other court poets Harun Ar-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockkelman: "Gesch. D. Arab. Litt.", I, 134) There is a right historiography, and after the "life of the apostle", compiled by Ibn Izhek for Mansura, a number of high historians also appear. From the Persian language Ibn Al-Mukaff (about 750) translates the Sassanid "Book of Kings", the Pohlevian treatment of Indian Proverbs about "Kalilo and Dimna" and various Greek-Siro-Persian philosophical works with which Basra, Kufa, then acquaint And Baghdad. The same task is performed by people of more close to the Arabs of the language, the former Persian citizens of Christian-Aramaites Jondyshapur, Harran, and others. And about the translation into Arabic of the Greek works of medical, and at the same time, mathematical and philosophical cares for Monsur (Masidi: "Golden meadows") . Harun gives the manuscripts brought from low-uniance, for the translation of Johndishapur doctor John Ibn Masayuyuich (who was engaged even by Vivissection and was then a Life-Medica of Mamuna and his two successors), and Mamun made up, already specifically for distracted philosophical purposes, a special translative collegium in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greco-Siro-Persian philosophy, commentator work on the interpretation of the Quran is drawn to the scientific Arabic philology (Basrien Khalil, Basiny Persian Sibweihai; Teacher Mamuna Cuffica Kicky) and the creation of Arab grammar, philological gathering works of the Dfficatic and Omoyjad People's Literature (Mouallacate, Hamas, Hozalet's poems, etc.).

The age of the first abbasids is also known as the period of the highest voltage of the religious thought of Islam, as the period of a strong sectarian movement: Persians who have now moved to Islam, took Muslim theology almost completely into their hands and opened a lively dogmatic struggle, among which the heretical sects that have occupied still Omeyads, they received their development, and Orthodox theology-laws decided in the form of 4 schools, or sense: with Mansure - more progressive Abu Khanifa in Baghdad and Conservative Malik in Medina, with Haruna - relatively progressive Ash-Shafia, with Mother - Ibn Hanbal. The attitude of the government to these orthodoxes was not always equally. With Mansur, a supporter of Mutazilitov, Malik was carved before injury. Then, with the following 4 reigns, the lawwriting took the top, but when Mamun and his two successors were erected (since 827) Mutazilism into the degree of state religion, followers of orthodox people were subjected to official persecons for "anthropomorphism", "Multo-litigation", etc., and Al-Mutasima was carved and attempting to holy Imam Ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the Mutazilitis Caliphs sect could patronize hopelessly, because its rationalistic doctrine of the free will of man and the creation of the Quran and its inclination to philosophy could not be politically dangerous. To the political sects, like, for example, Harijitam, Mazdakitam, extreme shiites, which were sometimes raised by very dangerous uprisings (Persian Persian Mokanna in Horasan at Al-Mahdi, 779, brave baks in Azerbaijan in Mamun and Al Mutasim, etc. ), the ratio of caliphs was repressive and merciless even in the times of the highest power of the Caliphate.

Disintegration of Khaliphata

Loss of political power of caliphs

Witnesses of the gradual decay of X. were Caliphs: Motavakkil already mentioned already (847-861), Arabic Neron, very praised by legal leaders; His son Muntasir (861-862), who climbed the throne, killing his father with the help of the Turkic Guard, Mustains (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Mukhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muktafafi I (902-908), Muktadir (908-932), Al-Kahir (932-934), al-sake (934-940), muttaki (940-944), Mustaki (944-946). In their face, Caliph from the Lord of the Extensive Empire turned into the Prince of a small Baghdad region, the warring and placing with its sometimes stronger, sometimes more weak neighbors. Inside the state, in its capital Baghdad, Caliphs were dealt to be dependent on the highest Pretorian Turkic Guard, which I found it necessary to form Mutasim (833). With abbasids, the national identity of the Persians came to life (Goldsier: "Muh. Stud.", I, 101-208). The increasing extermination of the Harun Barmakers who could fuse to allocate the Persian element with Arabic led to the discrepancies between the two peoples. In Mamun, the strong political separatism of Persia was expressed at the base of the Tahiride dynasty in Horasan (821-873), which turned out to be the first symptom of the upcoming deposition of Iran. After Tahirov (821-873), independent dynasties were formed: Saffarids (867-903; see), Samanides (875-999; see), Gaznevida (962-1186; see), - and Persia escaped from the hands of caliphs. In the West, Egypt together with Syria separated under the rule of Tulunidov (868-905); True, after the fall of Tulunides, Syria and Egypt were again under the control of Abbasid governors; But in 935, Siahid founded his dynasty (935-969), and since then no area to the west of Euphrates (Mecca and Medina also belonged also belonged to Euchshid) did not obey the secular power of Baghdad Caliphs, although their right of spiritual lords admitted everywhere (except , of course, Spain and Morocco); The coin was minted with their name and public prayer (Hutba) was read.

Persecution of freedomiff

Feeling his weakening, Caliphs (the first-al-Mutavakkil, 847) decided that they should decide for themselves new support - in the Orthodox clergy, and for this - to renounce Mutazilitian liberalness. Thus, from the time of Mutavakkil, along with a progressive weakening of the power of the Caliphov, there is an increase in the lawwrog, the persecution of heresies, freedomiff and innovation (Christians, Jews, etc.), a religious persecution for philosophy, on natural and even accurate science. The new powerful school of theologians, founded by Abul-Khasan Al-Ashari (874-936), who left Mutazilitz, leads scientific controversy with philosophy and secular science and wins public opinion. However, to actually kill the mental movement of the Caliphs, with their more and more falling politically power, were not able to, and the most glorious Arab philosophers (Basri Encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and others. Scientists lived under the patronage of the vassal soverees. Epoch (- in.), When officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogmatics and in the opinion of the masses, philosophy and insanitial sciences were recognized as dishonesty; And the literature towards the end of the named era gave the greatest free-industrial Arab poet Marri (973-1057); At the same time, Sufism, very well-vacrating to Islam, passed from many of his Persian representatives in the utmost volnity.

Cairo Califat.

Latest Caliphs from the Abbasid dynasty

Caliph Abbasidsky, that is, in essence, a small Baghdad prince with the title, was a toy in the hands of his Turkic military leaders and Mesopotamian Emirov: with the al-sake (934-941) established a special post of Mayorom (Emir Al-UmarÂ). Meanwhile, in the neighborhood, in Western Persia, the Shiite Dynasty of Buids, launched from Samanides in 930 (see). In 945, Buida captured Baghdad and owned it for more than a hundred years, with the title of Sultanov, and at this time there were nominal califes: Mustacfy (944-946), Al-Muti (946-974), Al-Taii (974-991 ), Al-Kadir (991-1031) and Al-Kayam (1031-1075). Although from political calculations, for a counterweight Fatimidam, Shiite Sultany-Buides called themselves by Vassal, "Al-Umar's" by the Sunni Baghdad Caliphate, but, in essence, they treated caliphs as with prisoners, with perfect disrespect and contempt, patronized philosophers and liberty Sectarians, and in Baghdad itself, Shiism succeed.

Invasion of Seldjuks

The ray of hope for deliverance from the oppressants flashed caliphs represented by a new conqueror, the Turkic Sultan Mahmoud Gaznevi (997-1030), who, having created his own huge Sultanate, instead of the Samanid state, showed himself to Yarym Sunnith and introduced his mistress everywhere; However, only in small busides, he took a middle a mussel and some other possessions, and avoiding clashes with the main buys. In culturally, Mahmud's campaigns were very detachious for the countries conquered by him, and in 1036 the terrible misfortune struck all Muslim Asia: Seljuki Turks began their devastating conquests and caused the first fatal strike of Asia-Muslim civilization, shocked by Turks-Gaznevids . But the Khalifam became better: in 1055, the leader of Seljukov Togrul-Beck went to Baghdad, freed the caliph from the power of heretic-Buids and instead of them became Sultan himself; In 1058, he solemnly accepted the investment from Al Qaima and surrounded by his external signs of respect. Al-Kaim (Mind 1075), Mukhtadi II (1075-1094) and al-Mustazhir (1094-1118) lived in material content and respect, as representatives of the Muslim Church, and Al-Mustarshid (1118-1135) Seldzhukide Mas'ud Granted for independent secular control Baghdad and most of Iraq, which remained for its successors: AR-Rashid (1135-1136), Al-Muktafa (1136-1160), al-Mustadjide (1160-1170) and al-Mustadi (1170 -1180).

End of X. Fatimid, so hated for abbasides, put the faithful Sanjadin Sunnie (1169-1193). The Egyptian-Syrian Dynasty of Aybidov (1169-1250) was read the name of the Baghdad Caliph.

Invasion of Mongols.

Taking advantage of the weakness of the broken the Seljuk dynasty, the energetic Khalif An-Nasir (1180-1225) decided to expand the limits of his little Baghdad X. And he ventured to join the fight with the powerful Khorezmsham Mohammed Ibn Techeshem, who advanced instead of Seljuk. Ibn Techke told the congregation of theologians to transfer X. from the genus Abbas to the genus Ali and sent troops to Baghdad (1217-1219), and An-Nasir sent the embassy to Mongolas Genghis Khan, inviting them to invade Khorezm. Neither An-Nasir (mind 1225) nor Khalif Az-Zahir (1220-1226) did not see the end of the catastrophe, which destroyed the Islamic countries of Asia and in cultural and material and mental terms. Al-Mustanasir (1226-1242) and a completely insignificant and talentless al-Mustasim (1242-1258) were turned out to be the last Baghdad Caliphs (1242-1258), which in 1258 passed the capital of Mongols Hulagu and after 10 days he was executed with mostly members of his dynasty. One of them ran into Egypt, and there, Mamluk Sultan Beibars (-), in order to have spiritual support for his Sultanate, built him into the rank of Khalifa under the name of Mustanastira (). The descendants of this Abbasid remained nominal califes at the Sultans of Cairo until the power of Mamlukov was overthrown by the Ottoman conqueror Selim I (1517). In order to have all the official data of the spiritual primordination over the entire Islamic world, Selim I forced the last of these caliphs and the latter in the genus Abbasid, Motavakkil III, solemnly renounced the Califa rights and title in favor of Ottoman Sultanov.

Cards

Sources

The main sources for the history of X. - Arabic:

1. historians, what are Belarus (mind. 892), Ibn-Cabeba (mind 889), Abu-Hanifa Dynavary (mind 895), Muhammad AT-Tabari (mind 923), al-Masidi (mind 956), etc. ;
2. geographers (ed. De Gua in "Bibl. Geogr. Arabicorum") and the oldest lawyers, especially Hanifit Abu-Yusof (Mind 798) and Yahu Ibn Adam (mind 818);
3. early comments on the works of Arab poets (for example, for the era of Omeyadov - on the sofa Ahtal, Jarira and Frazdak) and clarified poetic and prosaic anthologies, for example, the "Book of Songs" Abul-Faradja Paramyansky (Mind 973) - for the era of Omayyad, "Kâml" Mobarrad (Mind 898) - for the Harijdit Movement, Yatimet-Hell Dahr Taigiya (Mind 1037) - for the history of Hamdanids and Buids; A rich source for the cultural history of X. - Comprehensive half-timelous works of Joshiza (mind 868; publishes fang-foten);
4. hadith (see acc. Article), which, in relation to Muhammad, cited in them, are unreliable, but they are well characterized by the epoch when they were composed (see below for the works of Goldsier);
5. numismatic monuments, ed. and studied at V. Tisengausen ("Coins Vost. X."), Fren ("Recentsio", with addition.), Art. Lan-bullet (in the catalog of the Oriental Coins of the British Museum).

Manuals: 1) Vail, "Gesch. Der Chalifen "(Manng. and Stuttg., 1846-1862, 5 TT.; Summary of its 30-year-old. Works Vale gave" Gesch. Der I Sl. Vö Lker Von Mohammed Bis Zur Zeit Des Sultan Selim ", Stuttg. 1866);