What scientific knowledge arose with the Egyptians briefly. Development of scientific knowledge of the ancient Egyptians
Scientific achievements of Egypt
Large success reached the ancient Egyptians and in scientific knowledge. Of course, these were disparate information, weakly related to each other and not yet distinguished from the religious-mythological picture of the world. Nevertheless, many of the results obtained by the ancient Egyptians are striking. The development of computational business contributed to the construction (the accuracy of construction industries and the perfect markup of the paint angles of the depths of depths and the levels of ledges on the pyramidal laying). The need to calculate the periods of spilling Nile created Egyptian astronomy. In essence, they created one of the first calendars, the basic principles of the construction of which retain their meaning to this day. Year consisted of three times, every time out of 4 months, every month out of 30 days; Example 360 \u200b\u200bdays a year there were 5 additional, leap years was not, so the calendar year was ahead of the natural, consisting of 365 days, every 4 years per day. Grand Ancient Egyptians was made in the field of physics - to reduce the friction force, slaves lily oil under the terminal of the carts (construction of a pyr-mid). At the time of the ancient kingdom of the Egyptians, they made a discovery in the field of chemistry - the colored pastes, which covers large beads or make it from color smalt. From this bead throughout history Ancient Egypt Made many different decorations.
The period of the Middle Kingdom belongs to the first mathematical and medical texts (some of them are the tasks in the modern understanding of this word).
Especially developed in ancient Egypt was mathematics - and this is despite the bulky and uncomfortable numerical system. Egyptians knew complex tasks with the formation of fractions, the concept of an unknown, the developments for calculating the surface of the hemispheres and the volume of the pyramid, including truncated; They already use the number "PI" \u003d 3.16. Together with the trigonometry of volumetric bodies, the system of the rules of the golden section is being developed.
Astronomers create fairly accurate pictures of the star sky (lists of constellations on sarcophagas). There are guesses that the relevant constellations are in heaven and day. They are invisible during the day, as the sun is in the sky.
Physics - invented water clock (pocket, our Egyptian chasi, instructions - "instructions" on the use of sunny clock).
Medicine - hospitals with a description of blood circulation, treatment of wounds, swelling of the skull and damage to the inner cavities of the nose.
Geography - to us the pieces of detailed drawings of the Mountain Mountains of the Desert are reached.
Perhaps a modern person, these knowledge will seem too primitive, but we should not forget that this is the early stage of human culture. It is not by chance that the ancient Greeks considered the Egyptians of the wisest of people, went to Egypt for wisdom, studied from the Egyptian priests. The culture of ancient Egypt in many respects became a model for many other civilizations, a model that was not only imitated, but from which they repelled and which they sought to overcome.
Output
The cultural heritage of Egypt continued to live in the Julian calendar, in Geometry of Geron, in studies of fractions from Greek mathematicians and in the task of solving an arithmetic progression from Armenian mathematics VII century. AD Anania Shiraksky.
Egyptian norms of law and public administration in one way or another are learned by the Romans and Byzantium, the peoples of Christians of the East and Rus.
The treasures of Egyptian thought - scientific, practical and mystical - turned out to be an attractive source for prominent Greek scientists, philosophers, statesmen who visited Egypt to join these knowledge and make them the heritage of their culture. Long before the accumulation of ancient civilization rushed in Egypt, the greatest practical knowledge in the field of mathematics and astronomy (determination of the area of \u200b\u200bthe circle, the volume of truncated pyramid, the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe hemisphere, the solar calendar, the division of the day for 24 hours, the signs of the zodiac).
Europe, which received from the ancient Egypt, the earliest science and art is obliged to him by another blessing - an alphabetical letter (FR. Scientist J.F. Schampolon).
The temples of Egypt are giant stone books, where artists used all the available surfaces. Archites, columns, their bases, pylons, walls from the inside and outside, is all covered with images and hieroglyphs. The ancient monuments retained us reliefs and wall paintings, statues and steles, sarcophages and cult objects. The needs of the deceased were copied with the needs of Live Pharaoh.
The culture of the pharaoh Egypt, the relationship with which was initially rejected by Christians and Muslims, is now considered by everyone as an integral part of their historical and spiritual civilization.
God is the ancient Egyptian God of wisdom and knowledge
Science in the East, from ancient times remained an area of \u200b\u200bknowledge of knowledge to solve only practical problems related to economies and technology, on the one hand, and administrative activities on the other. Eastern science was fundamentally different from the European and, from the point of view of the latter, was not at all. She wore, mostly religious nature, was associated with human sensory experience and did not need an experiment. Its main problem lay in the humanitarian sphere and closely closed with religious ideology, philosophical "wisdom", the sphere of esoteric knowledge.
Much of the scientific heritage of the ancient Egyptians came to this day indirectly - in the negotiating of Greek historians and philosophers who made the culture of ancient Egypt in the late period, at the stage of slow fading. These coordinations were often incomplete, covered by the bee, like almost everything that concerned Egypt to the Greek-Roman era. BO Much this mysteriousness is due to the fact that the custodians of the scientific tradition were priests, and science is closely binding with religion. Many knowledge, especially those who had a certain sac-ignion, were carefully protected and only elected. Scooty Egyptian written sources testify just about an extremely strong oral tradition - scientific texts are extremely scarce, and those that have been preserved until today, often almost definition, the meaning of them is dark and, most likely, is already encrypted. Nevertheless, appreciating the culture of ancient Egypt, you can make sure that the Egyptians made a lot of discoveries in many fundamental-giving areas of science. The system of irrigation and pyramids - evidence of highly developed engineering and geometry, the art of embalming - proof of the practical achievements of the ancient-Egyptian chemists and physicians.
Part of the papyrus Akhmes with tasks
Mathematics
In the field of scientific knowledge of painful development in others. Egypt received mathematics as an applied science. For the construction of temples and tombs, measuring land and tax counting, first of all, the calculation system was required; From this, the development of mathematics began. The measurement of round areas and cylindrical volumes required the calculus of a square root. It can be concluded that Egyptian mathematics arose from the needs of office work and economic activities of the Egyptians. The Egyptians enjoyed a ten-hour accounting system in which they used special signs to denote numbers 1, 10, 100 to 1 million. Operated with simple fractions only with a numerator 1.
Egyptian figures were invented in ancient times, apparently, simultaneously with writing. They are pretty simple. Small vertical dashes used to record numbers from one to nine. A sign that resembles a bracket or horseshoe was used to designate 10. The image of the rounded rope was used to record the concept 100. The lotus flower stem was 1000. The human finger matched 10,000. The illuminator was a symbol of 100,000. The figure of a deity squatted denoted 1,000,000. Thus, the Egyptians were used decimal system Calculations at which the ten signs of the lower row could be replaced by one sign of the subsequent stage.
The Egyptians were able to multiply and divide, but these actions were made by a rather laborious way. The division was "multiplying the opposite." To share a single number to another, it was necessary to calculate how much you need to multiply the de-larger to get divisible. Multiplication, which was used by Egyptian mathematicians, was carrying successive. So, the action "5x6" looked like (5x2) + (5x2) + (5x2).
While the definition of the area of \u200b\u200bthe figures of a personal configuration was the usual task for geometers, the Egyptians did not have in their arsen-leva numbers "PI", introduced many later than in general mathematicians.
Mathematics had not only practical, but also artistic application. Some of Egypt-sky paintings retain traces preparatory work. Thin lines applied under the drawing of the grid showed that the artist discharged the flat bone to the squares and in these squares fit into parts of the figure. This technique testifies, in addition to wit technical solution And the mathematical thoughtful composition of the composition, that the Egyptians have studied proportions well and actively used them in painting.
Heroglyphic recording of the number 35736
The ancient Egyptians also possessed some elementary knowledge in the field of algebra - could solve equations with one and two unknowns.
At a fairly high level, the geometry was located for that time. With a high degree of accuracy, pyramids, palaces and sculptural monuments were built. In the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, there are solutions to difficult tasks for calculating the volume of truncated pyramid and hemisphere. The volume of the cylinder was calculated, multiplying the area of \u200b\u200bits base to height. This operation, associated with a cylindrical form of grain measure, was used to account for grain in government storages. The Egyptians of the average kingdom period use the number "PI", taking it equal to 3.16, and in general, the error in calculating the spheres of spherical surfaces does not exit from the limits of permissible.
Apparently, already in the era of the ancient kingdom ("the periodization of the history of dynastic Egypt from from the Hedgehogoldar Tsar Menes to Alexander Macedonsky, about 30 centuries. BC. Up to the end of the IV century. BC, closely connected with the Manefonian tradition. Manefon, Priest, who lived in Egypt soon after the campaign of A. Macedonsky, wrote a two-volume "story of Egypt in Greek. Unfortunately, only excerpts were preserved from his writings, the earliest of which are found in the writings of historians I. N.E. But what came to us, often in a distorted form, is extremely important, because these are excerpts from the book of a man who described the history of his country, based on well-available Egyptian documents. Manephone shared the egyptory of dynastic Egypt for three large periods - ancient , Medium and new kingdoms; each of these kingdoms is divided into dynasties, ten for each kingdom, - only 30 dynasties ") the system of lengths adopted in Egypt at the entire existence of the Egyptian kingdom. This system of measures was based on proportions. human body. The main unit of measurement was elbowed (equal to 52.3 cm.) - The value equal to the distance from the elbow to the fingertips. Seven palms of a bus in 4 fingers each equal to one elbow. The elbow also had divisions (equal width of one finger), which, in turn, consisted of smaller parts. The main measure of the square was considered to be "printed" equal to 100kV. elbows. The main measure of the Deben weight corresponded to about 91 g.
Preserved mathematical texts dr. Egypt (1st floor. 2nd thousand BC) consist of the advantage of examples on solving problems and, best caseRecipes for solving them, which sometimes manage to understand, only analyzing numeric examples, data in texts. It should be noticed exactly about recipes for solving certain types of tasks, because Mathematical theory in the sense of evidence of common theorems apparently did not exist at all. This is evidenced by, for example, that accurate solutions used without weighty differences from approximate. Nevertheless, the stock itself was established mathematical facts, in accordance with the high construction equipment, the complexity of land relations, the need, and the exact calendar, etc., is pretty great.
Iron production in ancient Egypt
Chemistry
Chemistry in ancient Egypt - the science is excludingly applied, and those who occurred inevitably sacred. The main area of \u200b\u200bthe application of chemical knowledge is the embalming of the dead as part of the cult of the dead. The need to co-storing the body in order during the ever-heading of life required the creation of reliable balsa-world compositions that did not allow decomposition and decomposition of tissues.
The chemistry of the ancient Egyptians-balsamizers is all sorts of resins and salt solutions in which the body was first soaked, and then a breakdown was turned through. The saturation of the mummy balsams was sometimes so high that the tones were charred over the centuries. So, in particular, there was a mummy of the Pharaoh Tutankhamon - fatty acid contained in aromatic oils and balms caused a complete charring of tissues, so the appearance of Pharaoh retained only a meaningful coffin of pure gold.
Ancient Egyptian pots
Another aspect of the application of chemical knowledge is glass wool. Faiansmic decorations, beads of stained glass - the most important branch of the jewelry art of the ancient Egyptians. The rich color gamut of jewelry fell into the hands of archaeologists, convincing, but demonstrates the skill of Egyptian glass windows to use a variety of mineral and organic additives for dyeing raw materials.
The same can be said about the leather business, and about weaving. The Egyptian skin to teach in the deepest antiquity and applied for this purpose the natural tannin, which are rich in acacia seeds growing in Egypt. A variety of natural dyes were used at the separation of fabrics - flax and woolen. The main colors are blue, for which indigo paint was used, and yellow. Egyptian artists were used by the richest color palette: painting the times of the ancient, medium and new kingdoms, preserved before the time in the dry air of the burial cameras. It was no longer lost by a multi-pita that it is impossible to better characterize the quality of dyes applied by the Egyptians.
Medicine
Extensive medical knowledge of the Egyptians of Semi-Chile from the practice of embarrassment of corpses, which led to a kingdom with the inner structure of the human body. In the epoch of the Tree of His kingdom, individual medical observations obtained by empirically, were subjected to selection and classification, on the basis of which the first medical treatises appeared. We have reached ten major medical papyrins who received their name or named the first owners, or by the name of cities where they are stored. Of these, two are the largest value of the EBERS large medical papyrus and Chi-Rurgic Papyrus Edwin Smith.
Ebers Papyrus was discovered in one of the FVAN-NICs in 1872 and dated a period of the Pharaoh Amenhotote-Pa I (XVI century. BC. E.). More than forty texts on medicine are recorded on this papyrus. It contains many recipes and prescriptions for the treatment of various diseases, tips are given, how to escape from the bites of insects and animals; The cosmetics section contains instructions on how to get rid of wrinkles, remove moles, strengthen hair growth, etc., all without exception medical recipes are accompanied by appropriate magical spells and conspiracies for each specific case. Various plants are mentioned as medicinal products (onions, garlic, lotus, flax, poppy, dates, grapes), minerals (antimony, soda, sulfur, clay, lead, nitrate), substances of organic origin (processed animal organs, blood, milk ). Drugs are usually prepared in the form of tinctures on milk, honey, beer.
Egyptian physicians treated various fever, dysentery, water, rheumatism, heart disease, liver, respiratory tract, diabetes, most gastric diseases, ulcers, etc.
In Papyrus, Edwin Smith lists various injuries: heads, throats, clavicle, chest, spine. Egypt-Surgeons were drunk on rather complex operations. According to discovery in tombs, they used surgery tools made from bronze. In the entire ancient world, the best doctors, and in particular surgeons, the Egyptians were rightly considered. They knew herbs and their medicinal properties, knew how to put an accurate diagnosis, the morphine was used, used the treatment of treatments in practice. The lack of knowledge was replenished with magic and witchcraft, which also often turned out to be useful (at least psychologically). Some means and methods of treatment, used by the ancient Egyptian doctors, are used in modern medicine.
Egyptian doctors taught, first of all, determine the symptoms of the disease, and then produce surveys and analyzes. They were instructed in detail to record the data of their observations and surveys. There is information that Egyptian doctors had to say after the examination, they can cure a patient or not. Sometimes they made surgical operations. Surgeons crossed their tools on fire before the operation and tried to abide in the maximum purity of the patient and everything surrounds.
Ancient Egyptian doctors used such a high prestige in the Middle East, which was sometimes sent to neighboring countries at the invitation of their Vladyk. One of the wall paintings in the tomb of the era of the new kingdom shows the alien Tsarevich, who came to Egypt with his entire family to consult with the Egyptian doctor. Doctors passed training from their senior and experienced colleagues, living some time in their families. Apparently, medical schools existed in Egypt. So, there is a certificate of the existence of a special school for midwife. The best doctors became the courtes of Pharaoh and his family.
The ancient Egyptian doctors well understood how the human body was arranged. They have information about nervous system And about the consequences of injuries of the brain. They knew, for example, that the injury of the right side of the skull causes paralysis of the left side of the body, and vice versa. Although they did not quite understand the circulatory system. They only knew that the heart ensures blood circulation in the body. Pulse they called "transmitting heart messages."
The sick Egyptian there was no need to know what he was sick. It is much stronger than his interest, whether the doctor can heal it. Such a sub-course of the doctor was reflected in the recommendations: "Tell him (i.e. the patient) only:" With this bole, I can cope with ", or" With this disease, I may cope ", or" With this disease I can not cope with this disease, "but tell him it immediately."
Of course, the most ancient and most important sector of medicine in ancient Egypt was pharmacology. It came to this day a lot different recipes Diploma made from plant and livelies. In this area, science and accurate knowledge were especially closely interacted with magic rituals, without which there was no thought of ancient Egyptian medicine, as well as medicine of any other ancient civilization. It should be noted here that doctors are original-but belonged to the estate of priests. Only in a late late period, not earlier than the new kingdom, medical treatises overlook the walls of the science schools, secular institutions. Probably, due to the decline in the influence of the temples, which made the end of the new kingdom, medicine in a significant stea-penalty secularized. But religion still played an important role in the treatment of diseases, especially if it were about psychological problems. In the treatment, prayers have always been read, and the more seriously the disease was probably more important than their pronunciation. People often referred to the temples of these gods to cure. At the temples, the doctors lived at the same time and priests. In some cases, the patients were allowed to spend the night in the temple room next to the sanctuary. The Egyptians believed that the patient could heal a miracle. If a miracle does not happen, in this case the patient will be sent a prophetic dream, on which the doctor will be able to establish its further treatment.
Astronomy
With deep antiquity, the main source of accumulation of scientific knowledge in ancient Egypt was economic activity. For the grade organization of a year-old agricultural cycle, it was necessary to be able to determine the arrival of the next time of the year, to predict the spill of the Nile, make some predictions relate to the abundance of flood waters. Observation behind the stars Egyptian priests were probably from the moment of the emergence of the first settlements in the pre-Line Nile. For centuries, they have accumulated a significant amount of astronomical data that allowed to make enough accurate meteorological pro-scannes - probably both long-term and short-term. In addition to the purely applied side of the observation of the sky wearing and partly theoretical character. So, it is known that still astronomers of the middle king were the starry sky, visible in Egypt. Such cards have been preserved in painting on the ceiling of some ancient Egyptian temples. Alternatively, Sirius Sketch, the most important star for the trees, the Egyptians, there are mountains on these cards - Venus, evening star. Apparently, it was from the ancient Egyptian priests that the tradition began to portray on the cards of the starry sky Constellation in the form of symbolic figures. Attentive observation of the sky allowed the Egyptian priests pretty quickly learn to determine the difference between stars and planets. Tables of the position of stars and celestial bodies Help is Egyptian astronomers in determining the pro-knee position. The priests of astronomers were able, and predict solar eclipses, even es-to-squeeze their duration. However, this storo-on astronomical knowledge was undivided by the secret of higher priesthood. Agricultural annual cycle led to the need to create a calendar. Oldeyegi-Petsky Sunny calendar - truly seven-making accuracy of ancient astronomers. By the big account, this calendar is based on those calendars that humanity uses today. The year began in April - that day, Sirius, the star, which the most ancient inhabitants of the Nile valley called the Nile called in the Dawn Sky. The predestrous sunrise of Sirius pre-broadcast the long-awaited rise in the water in Nile and launch a new life cycle. Egyptian year lasted 365 days. The spill cycle of the Nile dictated delapse for three years of year - flooding, drying water and yals in the fields and drought. In each of the seasons, it was four months old, and each month was delivered by a certain agricultural work. Months were equal, at thirty days, and shared for three decades. The last five days have been added at the end of the year to relate it to the salt-free cycle. The disadvantage of this calendar was only that the year calendar and the year was not completely solar. The ancient Egyptians did not know about the leap year, therefore, over time, there were quite significant differences between the solar and calendar year - one day at four years, almost a month in a century.
The Egyptian day consisted of 24 hours, and for the measurement of time there were two types of hours - solar and water. In addition, in the night time, the time could be determined on the position of the stars, using the same astronomy-kimi tables.
The second Ancient Egyptian calendar was founded on the Phase of the Moon. Since the lunar month consists of 29.5 days, this calendar constantly needs to be amended. However, they continued to use to calculate the dates of some religious ceremonies. The first calendar, providing for the division of the year for 365 days, was introduced in the era of the ancient kingdom, possibly King Imhotep. Since the year is 365.25 days, this calendar has become gradually lagging behind the date of the New Year's offensive, calculated on the situation of the relationship. After visiting Egypt, Julius Caesar ordered to introduce it throughout the Roman Empire. The option of this calendar, known as Juliansky, was used in Europe as long as in the XVI century. Gregorian calendar was not created - the one we use today.
Afterword
The needs of production, socio-economic and actually cultural development led to the accumulation of the reality of knowledge - mathematical, astronomical, biological, medical. The writing allowed them to fix and transmit the following generations.
Science is the comprehension of the world in which we live. Accordingly, this science is customary to determine as highly organized and highly specialized activities for the production of objective knowledge of the world, including the person himself. At the same time, the production of knowledge in society is not self-sufficient, it is necessary to maintain and develop human life.
The knowledge of the Egyptians in various fields had a significant impact on the development of antique, and therefore, European science. The Greeks always looked at Egypt as the country of ancient wisdom and considered the Egyptians with their teachers.
The emergence of scientific knowledge in Egypt and other ancient states did not lead to the emergence of science in their own sense of the word; You can only talk about her elements that used mainly in practical, utilitarian purposes. In addition, the Egyptian Science is very closely connected with mythology, religion and magic.
Literature
Big Soviet Encyclopedia (Volume 9 and 15). A. M. Prokhorov. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1972.
The World History. MA Xenova, S. Ismailov. - M.: Avanta +, 1993.
The World History. Bronze Age. A. N. Badak, I. E. Vicnica. - M.: AST, 2002.
History of the East. Volume 1: East in antiquity. R. B. Fishermen. - M.: Eastern Literature, 1999.
The history of world culture. S. Karpushin, V. Karpushin. - M.: NOTA BENE, 1998.
World Culture: Sumerian Kingdom. Babylon and Assyria. Ancient Egypt. A. Zaitsev, V. Laptayev, A. Pryyaz. -M.: Olma-Press, 2000.
The greatest gift in the world - be able to belong to yourself (c)
Astronomy
With deep antiquity, the main source of accumulation of scientific knowledge in ancient Egypt was economic activity. For the competent organization of a one-year agricultural cycle, it was necessary to be able to determine the arrival of the next time of the year, to predict the spill of the Nile, to make some forecasts regarding the abundance of flood waters. The observations of the stars Egyptian priests were probably due to the emergence of the first settlements in the Nile Valley. For centuries, they have accumulated a significant amount of astronomical data that allowed to make enough accurate meteorological forecasts - probably both long-term and short-term. In addition to the purely applied side of the observation of the sky wearing and partly theoretical character. So, it is known that the astronomers of the Middle Kingdom constituted the star of the starry sky apparently in Egypt. Such cards have been preserved in painting on the ceiling of some ancient Egyptian temples. In addition to Seta Sirius, the most important star for the trees of them Egyptians, there are Mountains on these cards - Venus, evening star. Apparently, it was from the ancient Egyptian priests that the tradition went to portray the constellations in the form of symbolic figures. Attentive observation of the sky allowed the Egyptian priests pretty quickly learn to determine the difference between stars and planets. Tables of the position of stars and celestial bodies helped Egyptian astronomers in determining the spatial position. Astronomer's priests were able, and predict solar eclipses, even calculate their duration. However, this side of astronomical knowledge was the undivided secret of top priesthood. The agricultural annual cycle led to the need to create a calendar. Ancient Egyptian solar calendar is a truly masterpiece of the accuracy of ancient astronomers. By and large, it was this calendar that lay down those calendars with which humanity enjoys today. The year started in April - that day, Sirius, the star, which the ancient inhabitants of the Nile valley called them called at the Dawn Sky. The predestrous sunrise of Sirius foreshadowed the long-awaited rise in the water in the Nile and the beginning of the new life cycle. Egyptian year lasted 365 days. The Nile spill cycle dictated a division for three years of year - flooding, drying water and yals in the fields and drought. Each of the seasons was four months, and each month was devoted to certain agricultural work. Months were equal, at thirty days, and shared for three decades. The last five days were added at the end of the year to relate it to the solar cycle. The disadvantage of this calendar was only that the year calendar and year solar did not coincide completely. The ancient Egyptians did not know about the leap year, therefore, with a strength, quite significant discrepancies were accumulated between the sun and calendar year - one day at four years, almost a month in a century.
The Egyptian day consisted of 24 hours, and for measuring time there were two types of hours - solar and water.
In addition, at night, the time could be determined on the status of stars, using the same astronomical tables.
The second Ancient Egyptian calendar was founded on the Phase of the Moon. Since the lunar month consists of 29.5 days, this calendar constantly needs to be amended. However, they continued to use to calculate the dates of some religious ceremonies. The first calendar, providing for the division of the year for 365 days, was introduced in the era of the ancient kingdom, possibly King Imhotep. Since the year is 365.25 days, this calendar has become gradually lagging behind the date of the New Year's offensive, calculated on the situation of the relationship. After visiting Egypt, Julius Caesar ordered to introduce it throughout the Roman Empire. The option of this calendar, known as Juliansky, was used in Europe as long as in the XVI century. Gregorian calendar was not created - the one we use today.
Mathematics
In the field of scientific knowledge of painful development in others. Egypt received mathematics as an applied science. For the construction of temples and tombs, measuring land and tax counting, first of all, the calculation system was required; From this, the development of mathematics began. The measurement of round areas and cylindrical volumes required the calculus of a square root. It can be concluded that Egyptian mathematics arose from the needs of office work and economic activities of the Egyptians. The Egyptians enjoyed a ten-hour accounting system in which they used special signs to denote numbers 1, 10, 100 to 1 million. Operated with simple fractions only with a numerator 1.
Egyptian figures were invented in ancient times, apparently, simultaneously with writing. They are pretty simple. Small vertical dashes used to record numbers from one to nine. A sign that resembles a bracket or horseshoe was used to designate 10. The image of the rounded rope was used to record the concept 100. The lotus flower stem was 1000. The human finger matched 10,000. The illuminator was a symbol of 100,000. The figure of a deity squatted with raised hands denoted 1,000,000. Thus, the Egyptians were used a decimal calculation system, in which ten signs of the lower row could be replaced by one sign of the subsequent stage.
The Egyptians were able to multiply and divide, but these actions were made rather time consuming. The division was "multiplying the opposite." To divide one number to another, it was necessary to calculate how much the divider needs to be multiplied to get dividimy. Multiplication used by Egyptian mathematics was consistent. So, the action "5x6" looked like (5x2) + (5x2) + (5x2).
While the definition of the side of the figures of the personal configuration was the usual task for geometers, the Egyptians did not have a number of "PI" in their arsenal introduced many later than Greek mathematicians.
Mathematics had not only practical, but also artistic application. Some of the Egyptian paintings retain traces of preparatory work. The thin lines of the grid applied under the drawing showed that the artist discharged the plane into squares and in these squares fit into parts of the figure. Such a technique testifies, in addition to the sharpness of the technical solution and the mathematical thoughtful composition of the composition, that the Egyptians have understood proportions well and actively used them in painting.
The ancient Egyptians also possessed some elementary knowledge in the field of algebra - could solve equations with one and two unknowns.
At a fairly high level, the geometry was located for that time. With a high degree of accuracy, pyramids, palaces and sculptural monuments were built. In the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, there are solutions to difficult tasks for calculating the volume of truncated pyramid and hemisphere. The volume of the cylinder was calculated, multiplying the area of \u200b\u200bits base to height. This operation, associated with a cylindrical form of grain measure, was used to account for grain in government storages. The Egyptians of the average kingdom period use the number "PI", taking it equal to 3.16, and in general, the error in calculating the spheres of spherical surfaces does not exit from the limits of permissible.
Apparently, in the era of the ancient kingdom, the length of the length of the length, adopted in Egypt at the entire existence of the Egyptian kingdom. This system system was based on the proportions of the human body. The main unit of measurement was elbowed (equal to 52.3 cm.) - The value equal to the distance from the elbow to the fingertips. Seven palms of a bus in 4 fingers each equal to one elbow. The elbow also had divisions (equal width of one finger), which, in turn, consisted of smaller parts. The main measure of the square was considered to be "printed" equal to 100kV. elbows. The main measure of the Deben weight corresponded to about 91 g.
Preserved mathematical texts dr. Egypt (1st floor. 2nd thousand BC) consist of the advantage of examples on solving tasks and, at best, recipes for solving them, which sometimes manage to understand, only analyzing numeric examples, data in texts . It should be noticed exactly about recipes for solving certain types of tasks, because Mathematical theory in the sense of evidence of common theorems apparently did not exist at all. This is evidenced by, for example, that accurate solutions used without weighty differences from approximate. Nevertheless, the stock itself was established mathematical facts, in accordance with the high construction equipment, the complexity of land relations, the need, and the exact calendar, etc., is pretty great.
Medicine
The extensive medical knowledge of the Egyptians received from the practice of embalming the corpses, which led to an acquaintance with the inner structure of the human body. In the era of the trees of him, the kingdom of individual medical observations obtained by empirically, were subjected to selection and classification, on the basis of which the first medical treatises appeared. We reached ten major medical papyrins, who received their name or named the first owners, or on the name of the cities where they are stored. Of these, two are the greatest value of the Big Ebers Papyrus and Chirurgical Papyrus Edwin Smith.
Ebers Papyrus was discovered in one of the Fivanic Coffin of the NIC in 1872 and dated by the period of the rule of Pharaoh Amenhote I (XVI century BC. E.). More than forty texts on medicine are recorded on this papyrus. It contains many recipes and prescriptions for the treatment of various diseases, tips are given, how to escape from the bites of insects and animals; The cosmetics section contains guidelines on how to get rid of wrinkles, remove moles, strengthen hair growth, etc. All medical recipes are accompanied by appropriate magical spells and conspiracies for each specific case. Various plants are mentioned as medicinal products (onions, garlic, lotus, flax, poppy, dates, grapes), minerals (antimony, soda, sulfur, clay, lead, nitrate), substances of organic origin (processed animal organs, blood, milk ). Drugs are usually prepared in the form of tinctures on milk, honey, beer.
Egyptian physicians treated various fever, dysentery, water, rheumatism, heart disease, liver, respiratory tract, diabetes, most gastric diseases, ulcers, etc.
In Papyrus, Edwin Smith lists various injuries: heads, throats, clavicle, chest, spine. Egyptian surgeons were drinked by quite complex operations. As evidenced by findings in tombs, they used surgical instruments made of bronze 
In the entire ancient world, the best doctors, and in particular surgeons, the Egyptians were rightly considered. They knew herbs and their medicinal properties, could in many cases put an accurate diagnosis, morphine was used, enjoyed tested practices in practice. The lack of knowledge was replenished with magic and witchcraft, which also often turned out to be useful (at least psychologically). Some means and methods of treatment, used by the ancient Egyptian doctors, are used in modern medicine.
Egyptian doctors taught, first of all, determine the symptoms of the disease, and then produce surveys and analyzes. They were instructed in detail to record the data of their observations and surveys. There is information that Egyptian doctors had to say after the examination, they can cure a patient or not. Sometimes they made surgical operations. Surgeons crossed their tools on fire before the operation and tried to abide in the maximum purity of the patient and everything surrounds.
Ancient Egyptian doctors used such a high prestige in the Middle East, which was sometimes sent to neighboring countries at the invitation of their Vladyk. One of the wall paintings in the tomb of the era of the new kingdom shows the alien Tsarevich, who came to Egypt with his entire family to consult with the Egyptian doctor. Doctors passed training from their senior and experienced colleagues, living some time in their families. Apparently, medical schools existed in Egypt. So, there is a certificate of the existence of a special school for midwife. The best doctors became the courtes of Pharaoh and his family.
The ancient Egyptian doctors well understood how the human body was arranged. They have information about the nervous system and the consequences of brain injuries. They knew, for example, that the injury of the right side of the skull causes paralysis of the left side of the body, and vice versa. Although they did not quite understand the circulatory system. They only knew that the heart ensures blood circulation in the body. Pulse they called "transmitting heart messages."
The sick Egyptian there was no need to know what he was sick. It was much more interested in him, whether the doctor can heal it. Such a proceeding of the doctor was reflected in the recommendations: "Tell him (i.e. the patient) only:" I can cope with this disease ", or" With this disease, I may cope ", or" with this disease I am not Clear ", but tell him it immediately."
Of course, the most ancient and most important sector of medicine in ancient Egypt was pharmacology. A lot of various recipes for drugs made from plant and animal ingredients came to this day. In this sphere, science and accurate knowledge interact especially closely magic rituals, without which the ancient Egyptian medicine did not think at all, as well as medicine of any other ancient civilization. It should be noted here that the doctors originally belonged to the estate of priests. Only in to the voluminous late period, not earlier than the new kingdom, medical treatises overlook the walls of scribal schools, secular institutions. Probably, due to the decline in the influence of the temples, which comes at the end of the new kingdom, medicine largely secularized. But religion still played an important role in the treatment of diseases, especially if it were about psychological problems. In the treatment, prayers have always been read, and the more seriously the disease was probably more important than their pronunciation. People often referred to the temples of these gods to cure. At the temples, the doctors lived at the same time and priests. In some cases, the patients were allowed to spend the night in the temple room next to the sanctuary. The Egyptians believed that the patient could heal a miracle. If a miracle does not happen, in this case the patient will be sent a prophetic dream, on which the doctor will be able to establish its further treatment.
Chemistry
Chemistry in ancient Egypt - science exclusively applied, and he had a partly sacred character. The main area of \u200b\u200bthe application of chemical knowledge is the embalming of the dead as part of the cult of the dead. The need to preserve the body in order during the eternal afterlife required the creation of reliable balsaming compositions that did not allow the decisions and decomposition of tissues.
The chemistry of the ancient Egyptians-balsamizers is all sorts of resins and salt solutions in which the body was first soaked, and then soaked through them through. The saturation of mummy balsamas was sometimes so high that the fabrics were charred over the centuries. So, in particular, there was a mummy of the Pharaoh Tutankhamon - fatty acid contained in aromatic oils and balms caused a complete charring of tissues, so that Pharaoh's appearance retained only the famous coffin of pure gold.
Another aspect of the application of chemical knowledge is glass wool. Faiansmic decorations, beads of stained glass - the most important branch of the jewelry art of the ancient Egyptians. The rich color gamut of jewelry fell into the hands of archaeologists convincingly demonstrates the skill of Egyptian glass windows to use a variety of mineral and organic additives for dyeing raw materials.
The same can be said about the leather business, and about weaving. It was learned to dormit the skin of the Egyptians in the deepest antiquity and used for this purpose the natural tannin, which are rich in acacia seeds growing in Egypt. A variety of natural dyes were used in the stretch of fabrics - flax and woolen. The main colors are blue, for which indigo paint was used, and yellow. Egyptian artists were used by the richest color palette: painting the times of ancient, medium and new kingdoms, preserved before your time in the dry air of the burial cameras. It was no longer lost by a multi-pita that it is impossible to better characterize the quality of dyes applied by the Egyptians.
Geographical and ethnographic views.
There is existing in the closed space of the Nile Valley, the Egyptians were weakly aware of the world around the world, although they knew how to make beautiful topographic plans of a familiar area. About countries outside the Oonta and the 4th Niel threshold they had the most fantastic views. The universe was represented by a flat land with a sky leaning on her on four backups (world mountains); 
under the ground was the underworld, the World Ocean stretched around it, and in the center it was Egypt. All susha shared on two great river systems: Mediterranean with Neil and Eritrean with Euphrates, and water element - for three seas: green (Sovr. Red), black (salty lakes Suez Isthmus) and District (Mediterranean). Nile has emerged by their two huge holes in Elefantina. The acquaintance of the ancient Egyptians with their surrounding lands was stretched over the century. The reason for this is long interruptions between hikes to remote countries. During this time, geographic knowledge was lost, and many territories have repeatedly discovered.
For example, in the XXVIII century. BC. In the course of a major military expedition, under the command of Netanha, a network of temporary watercourses was discovered in the desert in the desert, as well as the deposits of the building stone and the deposit of copper, malachite and turquoise. They were successfully developed by the Egyptians for many centuries. Later, Egyptian Pharaoh Tutmos I about 1530 BC. Crossed the whole of Syria and reached the "land of two rivers" on the Upper Euphrate, where he left the fascinal inscription with the first descending order of this river. Since it flows in the direction opposite to Nile, the Egyptians called it "inverted water."
The one of their first swimming of the Egyptians in the Mediterranean Sea occurred, apparently, with the Pharaoh Snofra at the beginning of the XXVII century. BC, when from the city of Bible (now the settlement of Jbail in Lebanon) came the "Forty of Courts who delivered on the hundred cedar forests." Over the next centuries, communication with the overseas ports becomes constant. From there in Egypt, in addition to the Lebanese cedar, olive oil and wines come. Egyptian sailors preferred swimming along the shores. Despite the fact that already 5-6 thousand years ago, they could construct reliable ships, the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean they did not visit.
The Egyptians believed that humanity consists of four races: red (Egyptians, or "People"), yellow (Asians), White (Libyans) and Black (Negros); Later they included in this system of Hettites and Myquo Greeks.
Biology
The most ancient information about biological objects in Egypt is contained in a few papyrus (for example, the same Papyrus EBERS.) In many of these, lists of animals and plants are given. The Egyptians shared the animal world on the "fish", i.e., water animals are generally, segic, snakes, birds and four-legged. Among the latter distinguished carnivores (dogs, hyenas, lions) and herbivores (donkeys, horses, camels). Plants were divided into trees, vegetables, spices, medicinal herbs. Large success has reached agriculture: the Egyptians were cultivated at a time several types of bread cereals, many different vegetables, fruit trees, Lena and Maslin. In Egypt, a cattle, horses, donkeys, sheep, goats, pigs were bred. A single-burnt camel were domesticated, several types of antelopes, a cat, geese, ducks, horses, pigeons. Cours were delivered from India.
Craft and machinery
Pottery
One of the most ancient industries in Egypt was pottery: clay pots of coarse, poorly mixed clay reached us from the era of Neolith (VI-V Millennium BC). The manufacture of ceramic utensils began, as in modern Egypt, with the stirring of clay legs, water with water, to which small-chopped straw was added to reduce the viscosity of the clay, speedingly drying and preventing excessive vessel shrinkage.
The molding of the vessels in the neolithic and dodinal periods was performed manually, later the round mat was used as a rotating stand - the predecessor of the potary circle began to apply. The process of working on a pottery circle is depicted on painting in the tomb of the Middle Kingdom in Beni Hassan. Under the clever fingers of the modulers, the clay mass took the shapes of the pots, bowls, bowls, jugs of cups, large vessels with a pointed or rounded bottom. In the painting of the new kingdom, the image of a large clay cone, molded on a pottery circle, is preserved - the vessel is made from its upper part, which is separated from the cone the twine. In the manufacture of large pots, I first molded its lower part, and then the upper one. After the vessel was molded, he was dried first, and then burned. Initially, it was done, probably right on the ground - on the fire. On the relief in the tomb of Tii, we see the image of a pottery furnace from clay, resembling the pipe expanding upward; The door of the furnace, through which the fuel loaded, is located downstairs. The height of the furnace on the painting of the new kingdom is twice as much as human growth, and since the vessels were loaded into it from above, then the potter had to climb the stairs.
Egyptian ceramics in artistic terms cannot be compared with Greek. But for different periods You can select the leading and at the same time the most elegant forms of vessels, especially for a diverse period. For Tasic culture, glass-shaped vessels are characterized, expanding on the top, black or brown-black and black with a scratched ornament, filled white paste, for Bafeary - Ceramics of diverse shapes covered with brown or red icing, with black internal walls and edges. Naga I - Dark Color Culture Vessels with White Ornament, Naga II - Light With Red Ornament. Along with the geometric white ornament on the vessels of Nagada I, an image of animals and people figures appear. In times of Nagada II, a spiral ornament and images of animals, people and boats were preferred. In the days of the new kingdom, the potters learned to paint the jugs and vessels with various scenes, borrowed sometimes at keelpers on stone and wood, but more often generated by their own fantasy, - there are geometric and floral ornaments, images of grape vines and trees, birds devouring fish, running animals. 
Color ceramics depended on the grade of clay, facing (Angoba) and firing. For its manufacture, they used clay mostly two varieties: brown-gray with a fairly large number of impurities (organic, ferrunts and sand), which during the firing acquired brown-red, and gray lime almost without organic impurities, acquiring after the roasting of different shades of gray Colors, brown and yellowish color. The first grade of clay is found everywhere in the valley and the Delta of the Nile, the second - only in a few places, primarily in modern centers Pottery production - in Kenne and Bellas.
The most primitive brown ceramics, often with dark stains as a result of bad firing, was manufactured in all periods. The good red tone of the vessels reached the high temperature at a smokeless firing in the final stage or facing from liquid red (iron) clay. Black vessels were obtained, drowning them hot after the firing in a punching, which was tlaper from contact with them and smoke. To make a black top or inner walls from red vessels, only these parts were covered with smoking meak. Before the firing on the vessels could be made of light clay, diluted with water, which not only increased waterproof, but also pressed the yellowish tone after the roasting. The mortise ornament filled with white clay, and the painting of reddish-brown paint (iron oxide) on a thin cladding of white clay was applied to firing. Since the new kingdom, light yellow soil painted with paints after firing.
GLASS
As an independent material, the glass began to use since the XVII dynasty. It was especially common in the subsequent, XVIII dynasty. From the time of the new kingdom, glass vases reached, testifying to the emergence of the production of glass mosaic. The composition of the glass was close to modern (sodium silicate and calcium), but it contained little silica and lime, more alkali and iron oxide, thanks to which it could melt at a lower temperature, which facilitated the manufacture of glass products. Unlike modern, it didn't miss the world at all, sometimes shouted, even less often - was transparent.
In ancient Egypt, the so-called "rolled" glass was used. He was smelled in triggers, and only after the second smelting it acquired sufficient purity.
Before making some thing, the artisan took a piece of glass and warped it again. In order to make a vessel, the master first looked like a semblance of such a sand vessel; Then this shape was stuck with mild warm glass, they were satisfied with everything on a long pole and in this form rolled; From this surface glass became smooth. If the vessel wanted to make an elegant, with patterns, then a multicolored glass threads were wound on it, which during the rolling were sent to the still soft glass walls of the vessel. At the same time, of course, they tried to pick up the colors so that the pattern was well released against the background of the vessel himself. Most often, such vessels were made from dark blue glass, and the threads took blue, white and yellow.
To be able to make a multicolor glass, the glaziers should know their job well. Usually in the best workshops there were old masters who owned the secrets of the formulation of colored glass masses. By the experiments of the master installed various glasses color, it was obtained from adding to the mass of dyes. For getting white color It was necessary to add tin oxide, for yellow-oxide, antimony and lead; Manganese gave purple, manganese and copper-black; Copper in various proportions stained the glass in blue, turquoise or green, the other shade of blue was obtained from the addition of cobalt.
Thoroughly protected their secrets of old glazers, because only thanks to these knowledge, their work was valued, and their workshops were famous.
Carpentry
In the Grand Construction, starting from the ancient kingdom, a tree was quite widely used. Pyramids and temples could not be built without vehicles - vessels, barges, sleds and polozov, various lifting facilities - simple levers, frames, struts, strut, as well as a huge amount of guns - construction hoes, beasts, molotov, which made from wood. On ships and barges transported cattle, grain, fruits and vegetables. The expansion of Egypt's external relations demanded the construction of marine sailing ships. A large amount of wood was spent on the tools of the Agriculties (Sokhi, Moth, simple levers, rockers, and various adaptations that were used in agriculture - silent, cells for birds and small animals, etc. From the tree built chapels, gazebos, did Ceilings, floors, columns of residential premises, doors, furniture, lari, sarcophagi, statues and small crafts.
Images of carpentry workshops on reliefs in the tombs and merryuk (the ancient kingdom) show how the joiners are cutting the trunks with copper saws on the boards (Fig. 16). Thin and non-erase copper saws from 25 to 42 cm long with obliquely located teeth and wooden handles were known in Egypt with the III Millennium BC. e. Through what the Egyptians from ancient times could be used to make boards and thin fane. The sawn stem was tied up to the top to the post driven into the ground. According to a common opinion, a wedge was inserted into the boarding board, at the upper end of which a stone-counterweight is fixed. The wedge was supposedly used to expand the saw as the saw moves, since the Egyptians still unknown its divorce (alternate bending of teeth in both directions), necessary to prevent the sawing of the saw with the sawn parts of the barrel. But there is an opinion that the wedge served here for tensioning rope and securing the board in a fixed position.
Stained stained boards with copper toll, which replaced the ancient Egyptians of the plane. The tough was tied to the handle with a leather belt or rope. The chisel chosen was hollowed with a groove on a blackboard or a deck, the chisel was beaten on the knob. The grooves were hollowed for spikes, by which separate parts of wooden products were combined. The lid of the box was drilled by a tubular drill - the ancestor of our coofer. The master kept the drill behind the head, the other led him to move, rotating the handle. Things and workbenches were unknown to the ancient Egyptians. The wooden frame of the bed grinding with small stones. The chisel "Delived the door", her Tesl was plaged.
The joinears of the ancient kingdom were already able to manufacture a subtle plywood, as evidenced by the wooden box in the alabastral sarcophage III of the dynasty - it is made up of six layers of plywood of different wood species (every thickness of about 5 mm) bonded by wooden cloves. Palace furniture found by archaeologists in the secret tomb of Queen's IV dynasty Hietepheres (bed, headrest, two chairs, chair, stretcher, porters and cavalo), allowed us to determine other ways to fasten the wooden parts, known for the joiners of the ancient kingdom: leather belt bonding, which stretched through small drilled in a hole in the tree, connections in the spike, in the paw and swallow tail. The legs of the armchairs, carved in the form of anatomically precisely reproduced lap lion (even blood vessels are transmitted), as well as under the elbows of the chair, decorated with smoothly curved lotus, show the perfect workshop of the joiners and cutters of the ancient kingdom. Throughout the average and new kingdoms, the guns and methods of wood processing were improved. The copper blades of the guns were gradually replaced by bronze, and during the late kingdom period - iron. The painting of the new kingdom show that and then in the joinery workshops, the length of the long board was made in the same way as in the ancient kingdom, attaching it to the post. Primitive shape of a hand saw (" fox's tail") Accepted a more modern appearance; In addition, it was stopped inserting a wedge to expand cut. Divorce drank, possibly known by the time of the Middle Kingdom, in the new kingdom everywhere went into use. Little boards sawed sitting not on the floor, as in the ancient kingdom, but on a low three-time stool, resting his leg into the board to give it stability. The trunks were still trimmed with a metal tough, replacing the plans, grinding the flat stone of fine sandstone. Small details and feet of furniture cut out the chisel chisel. Sophisticated the question of time of the invention turning machine: Some believe that it began to be used only in the Greek Roman period, others - that he was introduced earlier. However, there is no accurate evidence of the latter, because it was not established whether the legs of some chairs and stools were cut or sharpened on the machine. For the first time at this time, the furniture starts to fanish. The thin Fanur was able to make it possible during the time of the ancient kingdom, but fastened it with wooden cloves, and from the new kingdom of Fanor, made from the best varieties Tree, began to stick on less expensive wood. The trimmed plywood chairs were found in the Tui tomb. The painting on the wall in the tomb of the Vizier of the Rehmir shows how it was done: the joiner put the glue on the fire, and then deceived them a subtle plywood, which a carpenter prepared him, after which the third master polished her flat sandstone stone. The glue was removed from bones, leather, tendons and picking animals by boiling, evaporating the resulting decoction and cooling in the forms where it frozen into a solid mass.
METALLURGY
Despite the fact that copper extracted on Sinai was soft because there was a minor amount of manganese and arsenic impurities, the ancient blacksmiths knew how to harden her with cold forging and get enough hard metal. Even in dodinal times, copper to improve quality began to overpay. For this purpose, open ceramic and stone forms were used. After casting made from copper, the product was subjected to cold forging. Subsequently, when special forceps appeared for metal, copper began to ride hot. In the manufacture of any tools or weapons, such as chisels or daggers, its cutting edge was taken off for the hone and giving the desired form. The forging process caused a change in the crystalline state of the metal, at which copper became harder. In addition to the sets of tools in the tombs, knew the copper tools of labor were found by archaeologists in the field of work - in the quarries and specks. On stone blocks, of which the pyramids were folded, traces of only stone and copper guns are visible. Bronze, i.e., the alloy of copper with tin, then was not yet known, from copper during the time of the ancient kingdom, the guns were made to process not only the wood and soft grades, but also a solid stone - granite and basalt, as evidenced by traces of copper Tools remaining on them. Only forging and delivering tools ancient blacksmiths reached their amazing hardness. Chemical analysis of copper guns showed that over time, the metal lost properties purchased forging.
Since the early kingdom, a thin sheet copper was used to cover the wooden products - they were attached with copper cloves. The drainage gutter in the pyramids and temple structures were laid out with copper sheets without trails. Chemical analysis of the copper product showed that copper was never clean - such impurities such as antimony, arsenic, bismuth, manganese, iron, nickel and tin got into it, usually the percentage of impurities was small, but when he increased, copper became more solid. Considering this, since the middle kingdom, when weaving in copper began to add tin to get a firm and durable metal - bronze. The lower melting point of bronze and a big fluidity facilitated the process of its casting. The production of artificial copper alloy with Tin meant progress in the development of productive forces - the public entry of the society and a higher level of civilization, in the bronze age.
In the late era of bronze, figurines were cast - solid or hollow inside. To do this, it was used method of casting along the wax pattern: a model of the figure was made from the bee wax, which was harvested, covered it with clay and heated - the wax flowed through the holes left for the pouring of the metal, and the hot metal was poured into its solid form. When the metal frozen, the form was broken and the surface of the statue was separated by a chisel. Also cast hollow figures, but the wax was covered with a molding bump of quartz sand. This way saved wax and bronze. Despite the widespread bronze in the days of the new kingdom - not only the guns, but also weapons (daggers, spears, arrows, etc.) were made of it (daggers, spears, the tips, etc.), - from cheaper copper, too, continued to make implements and various objects. In the tomb of Tutankhamon copper items turned out to be more than bronze.
In the workshop at the teleberry and weaver
Significant place among the crafts occupied skin treatment and the manufacture of various items from it. Egyptians from ancient times were able to handle the skins, which were abundant to the shepherds and hunters. Belts were made of leather, which served to attach the working part of the working part of many guns (axes, dough, hill), for fastening the pieces of the plow and details of furniture, water burues, wals, bags, covers and cases for scrolls of papyrus and precious products, parchment, Sandals, shields and quiver, and from the new kingdom - the details of the combat and front chariots, horse harness.
Here we have leather workshops. In the depths of one of them, the door is open in a small courtyard, on which a group of men is occupied by the processing of the skins. One puts in a large clay vessel skins for soaking, and the two others began to process the skins, just removed from the vessel. One leather cleans the skin from the ebb; In his hand, he holds a tool with several pieces similar to the comb. His neighbor removes wool from her skin. Purified skins are joining again to other vessels.
In the workshop itself, employees are engaged in processing perfectly ready, clean and painted skins. Some of them are missing with a thick layer of fat, and then begin to mive. Fat absorbed into the pores of the skin, and it becomes flexible and soft. Other skins "simply stretch, cut out pieces of the desired form and stretch them into cooked wooden cores; so turns on the shields, quiver, front and sides of the chariots. All this is dried in the sun. Dried, leather items become hard and durable. From leather treated with fat , Make sandals, belts, horse bridles, collars for dogs. Adding coloring substances, get colored skin.
In the workshop closely and stuffy. Skin make a disgusting stench. Paints corrode fingers of workers, wool clogs in nostrils.
One of the most ancient species of Egyptian craft was weaving, which developed from weaving baskets. Samples of neolithic, Badari and dodinal weaves from the leaves of the palm trees, various herbs and plants are preserved. The remains of linen fabrics reached us from the era of Neolithic. Flax remained until late time the main material for the manufacture of tissues, but also preserved fabrics from herbal and cane fibers.
Table workshop is littered with smoky, various matters. Here and coarse, cheap canvas, and expensive, translucent fabrics; There are fabrics with color patterns, there are baked frnome. Linse fiber is hiding in rural areas. First, the fiber is stretched between two chopsticks and get thin thread. Then it is twisted, and the twisted threads, the so-called "roveling", are leaked using spindle in one yarn thread.
The spindle is a wooden rod with a stone or clay strawdish on it, it helps spindle to rotate long and evenly.
Spinners rotate in the hands of the spruce and leak yarn from several threads, usually from two, sometimes more; It happens even that the number of threads comes to twelve. Above the heads of spinners are fortified in the wall of the stick, to which rings are traditional. Through these rings and the extends of the string thread, which lies in the vessel, slightly moistened to the threads go smooth. Some spinners are coming immediately on two spindles: these are experienced masters who know their work well.
In addition to spinners, weathered and weavers work in the workshop. Weaving machines of various devices: Some of them are horizontally, others vertically. The last genesis was invented only during the days of the new kingdom.
"TRANSPORT"
Chariots
In the days of the new kingdom, a new branch of the woodwork craft was bloomed. Making chariots. In the XVI century to B, e. The Egyptians were taken from Syria Khanansky two-wheeled chariots and horses as military prey. Then they were obtained as a date. But at the time of the XVIII dynasty, the Egyptians themselves learned to make chariots. Archaeologists have discovered the workshops of the new kingdom in Egypt, in which various parts of the chariots have been preserved, and the wheels have mostly four wooden knitting needles. Light chariots with such wheels at the beginning of the new kingdom were used as a combat, and later - how racing when hunting for a quick-hunting game (painting in the tomb of Urilly XV century. BC) and when leaving no known. In the XIV century before and. E, began to make battle chariots that put on wheels with eight knitting needles (relief on the body of the chariot of Tutamos III). In the tomb of IUI, Father Pharaoh Amenhotpa III, and in the tomb of Tutankhamon (XIV century BC) were found chariots with six knitting on wheels. PA of such a combat chariot Ramses II fought in Syria (Rack Ramsseum). It is believed that the wheels with eight knitting needles were too heavy, and they refused. The chariots are almost entirely made of wood, mostly from elm, such as the chariot, preserved in the tomb of Tutankhamon. Open behind the body consisted of a semicircular bent wooden frame, tightened with leather weaving, and rounded front. In front of the chariot was supported by the backup, bonded by leather belts with breathing. Easy racing chariot had only a wooden cooker. Body
the royal away and battle chariots in front and at the bottom was covered with skin or canvas, decorated with gilding, painted on superimposed plaster, was covered with precious and semi-precious stones (the coating was not preserved on the found: chariots, not depicted on wall paintings).
To give a chariot of stability on the corners of the body strengthened
on the axis so that both ends of the latter performed on the sides of the body. For example, the width of the body of the chariot of Tutankhamon of life 1, 02 m, and the length of the axis between the wheels is 1, 75 m, i.e., Pa 73 cm is longer. The height of the front of the body of this chariot is 1, 25 m. On wall paintings, you can see how in the chariot workshops the masters bent a tree bent and curved ports in the frame of the base of the chariot. The wheels were skillfully made of several bonded with each other segments dug out from the thickness of the board. The needles also mostly made from bonded pieces of wood. The rim of the wheels were often wound up, like the needles, thick belts from fresh skin, which, when drying, fastened the tree. The workshop typically shows a polishing of the finished wheel, but not covered with more skin. Tutankhamon wheel diameter - 92 cm chariot. If the chariot was racing, wooden drawn, pinned with belts at the base of the body, for greater stability, tied belts and in the yoke. Therefore, it could turn around the spike.
If at the beginning of the XVIII dynasty, Egypt chariots were still reminded by their shape of Canaan, then from the XIV century. BC e. Egyptian masters managed to find the new form of the most stable chariots. From this time, their experience began to borrow ingenic masters.
WATER TRANSPORT
Shipbuilding in Egypt was engaged in ancient times, but initially boats and small vessels intended for swimming only on the Nile or in Delta ducts were associated with papyrus stems. There are many drawings on diving ceramics from Nagada and on the walls of dodinal and early tribes in depicting boats and courts with cabins in the middle (often dual). Based on these drawings, it is suggested that the cabins could serve dotted by the Egyptians, because during a flood and after his decline in them was safer to stay than on land, and it is convenient to move on numerous ducts and swamps left after a flood.
In the country where the river served the main way, shipbuilding early became an important branch of the craft. Already in the times of the ancient kingdom, not only river, but also sea vessels were built, which flooded along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea in Bible and in the Red Sea in Punt. River vessels were pleasant, cargo and cult, marine - military and cargo.
The indication of Herodota is noteworthy that the ancient Egyptian vessels did not have ribs, that is, was built without a spline, this confirm the preserved boats and images of the construction of ships on reliefs in the tombs of the ancient kingdom. The ancient Egyptian vessels were built not only without a spline, but without keel and had a small sediment, because they were intended for swimming along the river, where they were not uncommon. By the time of the ancient kingdom, shipbuilders as a result of a long experience have developed a certain standard for the parts of the vessel body. Based on images on the reliefs of various stages of construction of river trucks, it was possible to reconstruct the amount, form and location of the components of the body of the flat-bottomed Egyptian vessels. 
Each side of the corps was mounted from seven frequent: nasal and aft, three boards that support the flat bottom lying on them a longer, narrow and slightly curved board (it rested with its short sides into the top pieces of the feed boards), and the side that served to attach cheerful. Case boards made from acacia, Sicomoras and Lebanese breeds of coniferous wood. The components of the body were combined with wooden nails, as well as grooves and spike systems. On the reliefs of the tombs of Tii (the ancient kingdom), various stages of construction of cargo ships are depicted. First, the trunks of the trees with roughly chopped branches were thrown and trimmed with the help of axes and the testel were then sawed with a copper saw. Parts of the vessel body were connected as follows: in the round grooves already put on the site, spikes or wooden nails were driven, but not to the end. On the protrusions of the spikes embraced the board so that the grooves sweep in its lower part coincided with spikes. The grooves for spikes pierced with the help of chops and beasts, the spike gave the desired shape with the help of the Tesch. The size of the grooves and spikes should have accurately match each other, so they were pre-calculated in advance. To drive nails and spikes in the groove with a large wooden sledgehammer required a large physical force. In the same way, the vessel was imposed in the same way, but this stage of work was associated with special difficulties, since the side was very long and more than curved. Installation of sides were engaged in five workers from the sides, and in the boat stood the senior master feeding, feeding the team. Outside, the worker supported the superimposed part in the middle, two other workers sitting in a boat, held her rope loop. During this time, the senior master could check whether all the grooves correspond to Spike. After making sure that spikes and nails entered their grooves, he gave the team to their smooth shawls. The inscriptions passing commands of the Senior Wizard are preserved. It is believed that the Egyptian vessels were cocoon, otherwise they would give to flow when descending into water. In case of meat, the part of the body was tied by the twin woven from the fiber of the papyrus, as presented in the painting of one tomb in the medium. When the lubricant at all junctions, the triple row on the nose and the stern, apparently, were filmed, because there is no dinking in images of finished ships. Sea ships did not have a spline floor, were flat-bottomed, with a small sediment, like river. In the construction of them, unlike river vessels, tightly tied up with ropes. The rope raised the nose and stern, and it helped cut off a high wave. Sea vessels that could swim on the Nile were adapted only for coastal sailing. When the vessel body was compiled and fastened, proceeded to the inner and external finish. Teslas starred all irregularities and protrusions. On the relief of the tomb of necropolis in Daill-El-Gebrarty, an employee is depicted, which cuts the hole for a long cola, pointed from below and wing-like top. Such colas were put on the vessel at equal distances to maintain horizontally put rods, forming the cabin, covered with canvas. Another worker makes an ax of a nose with an ax, marking a place for the trunk of the steering wheel.
Courts went downstream the Nile on the messengers, upstream with a strong wind, which blows from the Mediterranean Sea - on the sail and weighed. When the shine, the ship was pulled by the ray. On the cargo ships, it was placed up to eighty rowers on each side, three people on the stern sent the ship with the help of longer cheers with large blades. On the sea ships, the number of rowers reached thirty, most of the river and all sea vessels were not only adapted under the oars, but also be equipped with sails. On the vessels of the ancient kingdom, the mast height in 3/4 the length of the vessel was closer to the nose, thanks to which the stern had to be made above the nose, like Papiral boats. Mast consisted. Of the two strong poles made of cedar wood or the Duma of Palms, which were fixed on the day of the vessel, are tightly connected to each other at the top and are additionally fastened by crossbars. But since the VI Mast dynasty began to do from one pedez. From the top of the mast went to the sort and stern. A long sail was strengthened on the mast with the help of one rei and tied at the bottom to board. During the middle of the kingdom, the strongest ship hulls began to build, which was achieved by reducing the size of individual parts of the vessel and increase their quantity. Subsequently, it was reflected in the nomenclature of numerous ship parts mentioned in the 99th chapter of the "Book of the Dead". The mast began to establish the locomotive of the vessel and the sail did not be longitated as earlier, but transversely, strengthening and pulling it between two eves.
Scientific knowledge of ancient Egypt
Science is an organic part of any culture. Without a certain set of scientific knowledge, the normal functioning of farms, construction, military affair, the management of the country is impossible. The domination of religious worldview, of course, restrained, but could not stop the accumulation of knowledge. In the system of Egyptian culture, scientific knowledge has reached a fairly high level, and above all in three spheres: mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
The definition of the beginning, maximum and end of the rise of water in the Nile, the timing of crops, aging grain and harvest, the need for measuring land plots, the boundaries of which had to be restored after each spill, demanded mathematical calculations and astronomical observations. The great achievement of the ancient Egyptians was the compilation of a fairly accurate calendar, built on careful observations over the celestial luminais, on the one hand, and the Nile regime - on the other. The year shared for three seasons for four months each. Month consisted of three decades to 10 days. The year was 36 decades dedicated to the constellations called in honor of the deities. By the last month, 5 additional days were added, which made it possible to combine the calendar and astronomical year (365 days). The beginning of the year coincided with the rise of water in Nile, that is, from July 19, the day of sunrise the brightest stars - Sirius. A day was divided for 24 hours, although the amount of an hour was not constant, as now, but hesitated depending on the time of the year (in summer, daytime watches were long, night-short, in winter, on the contrary).
The Egyptians have studied the starry sky visible to the simple eye, they distinguished fixed stars and wandering planets. Stars were combined into constellations and received the names of those animals, contours
Which, according to priests, they reminded ("Bull", "Scorpio", "Hippo", "Crocodile", etc.). Quite accurate stars, star sky cards were compiled. One of the most accurate and detailed maps The starry sky is placed on the ceiling of the tomb of Saintmut, the favorite of Queen Hatsepsut. The scientific and technical achievement was the invention of water and sun hours. An interesting feature of the ancient Egyptian astronomy was its rational character, the absence of astrological speculations, so ordinary, for example, for Babylonian.
The practical tasks of measuring land plots after the spills of the Nile, the accounting and distribution of the collected crop, complex calculations during the construction of temples, tombs and palaces contributed to the successes of mathematics. Egyptians have created a numbering system close to decimal, they developed special signs
Numbers for 1 (vertical trait), 10 (Sign of brackets or horseshoes), 100 (swirling sign), 1000 (Lotus stem image), 10 000 (Raised human finger), 100 000 (Picture image), 1 000 000 (figurine Sitting down deities with arms raised). They knew how to make addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, had an idea of \u200b\u200bfractions, in the numerator of which always stood 1.
Most of the mathematical operations were made to solve practical needs - calculation of the field area, basket, barn, barn, magnitude of the grain heap, the section of the property among the heirs. The Egyptians could solve such complex tasks as the calculation of the area of \u200b\u200bthe circle, the surface of the hemisphere, the volume of truncated pyramid. They knew how to raise the degree and extract square roots. The high level of mathematical knowledge can be judged by the content of two preserved papiers: the London Mathematical Papyrus Rind, which gives the solution of 80 complex tasks, and Moscow mathematical papyrus from the GMIA assembly. A.C. Pushkin containing answers to 25 tasks.
Over all of the front Asia, Egyptian doctors were famous for their art. Their high qualifications undoubtedly contributed to the widespread custom of the mummification of corpses, during which
doctors could observe and study the anatomy of the human body and its various organs. The indicator of the great success of Egyptian medicine is the fact that 10 medical papyrins have been preserved before our time, of which these encyclopedias are a large EBERS Papyrus (a scroll of 20.5 m long) and the surgical papyrus Edwith Smith (a scroll of 5 m long). For Egyptian medicine, fractional specialization of doctors was characteristic. "Every doctor, he wrote herodotus," only one disease heals. Therefore, they are full of doctors, they treat their eyes, others - the head, third - teeth, fourth - stomach, fifth - internal diseases. " Doctors have allocated and recommended treatment methods about hundreds of various diseases. One of the highest achievements of the Egyptian and all ancient medicine was the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main body. "The beginning of the Tyne doctor," the ebers papyrus says, - knowledge of the head of the heart, from which the vessels go to all members, for any doctor, every priest of Goddess will dry, every caster, touching the head, head, hands, palm, legs, everywhere concerns the heart : From him, vessels are sent to each member. " Found during excavations of tombs a variety of surgical instruments - evidence of a high level of surgery.
The refinement of the religious worldview could not contribute to the development of scientific knowledge about society. However, we can talk about the interest of the Egyptians to its history, which led to the creation of a kind of historical writings. The most familiar forms of such writings were the chronicles containing a list of reigning dynasties and record the most significant events that happened to the rule of pharaohs (the height of the Nile, the construction of temples, a military campaign, measuring areas, captured production). So, before our time, the fragment of the chronicle of the reign of the first five dynasties (Palermo Stone) reached. Turin Tsarsky Papyrus contains a list of Egyptian pharaohs to the XVIII dynasty. Carefully treated chronicles are the famous "Annals of Tutamos III", where the history of its numerous campaigns is outlined.
A kind of vault of scientific achievements are the most ancient encyclopedias - Slovers. Meetings of terms explained in the Slovenia, grouped by topics: sky, water, earth, plants, animals, people, professions, positions, alien tribes and peoples, food, beverages. The name of the compiler of the ancient Egyptian encyclopedia is known: it was the scribe of Amenemop, the son of Amenopea, he made his work at the end of the new kingdom (the most complete list of this work is stored in Moscow in GMIA. A. S. Pushkin).
Ancient Egypt is a country of ingenious builders and wise priests, cruel pharaohs and submissive slaves, but first of all it was countries of scientists. Perhaps among all the ancient civilizations, the ancient Egypt has advanced against science. Knowledge of the Egyptians, although scattered and not systematized, cannot but surprise a modern person.
Mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, architecture and construction - this is far from full list Scientific disciplines in which the civilization of ancient Egypt left its mark.
During the construction of the pyramids, Egyptian architects were seriously advanced in the calculation of the proportions of the building system, the depths of the foundation and levels of ledges in the masonry.
The needs of agriculture forced priests to learn how to calculate the spills of the Nile, for which the knowledge of astronomy was required. The ancient Egyptians came to the need to make a calendar. Ancient Egyptian calendar, construction principles 
which are relevant and today, divided by 3 years of year, which consisted of every 4 months each. In the month there were 30 days, while there were another 5 days outside of months. Note that leap years The Egyptians did not use, as their calendar was ahead of Natural. Also, Egyptian astronomers allocated constellations in the sky and understood that they were in the sky not only at night, but also during the day.
In physical science, the Egyptians used the force of friction - during the construction of the pyramids, slaves lily oil under the carts, which facilitated the movement of goods.
From the ancient Egyptians, the first training benefits reached us - the tasks - in mathematics. Of these, we learn that the Egyptians could solve complex tasks using fractions and unknowns, as well as deeply advanced in the calculation of the pyramid volume.
Medicine has been actively developed. Numerous military campaigns of Pharaohs led to the need to treat a large number of warriors, primarily representatives of the nobility. Therefore, it is not by chance that most of the medical texts that have reached us talk about the methods of treating certain damage. Especially great importance is attached to the cranial and brain injury (even the Egyptians did not consider the brain the main vital organ) and wounds caused by weapons.
Summarizing, we note that scientific achievements It is unlikely that any ancient ancient civilization managed to exceed the ancient Egypt. The knowledge of the Egyptians was so superior to the scientific knowledge of their contemporaries, that even the Greeks considered the inhabitants of the Nile Valley's wisest people and sought to learn from the most educated group of the population of Ancient Egypt - Priests.
