"Chinese democracy" from Guns N Roses. The arrival of the concept of "democracy" in China

I was always interested, China positions itself as a democratic state, but how does he explain what the Communist Party rules?

Today I found the answer

News agency Xinhua from February 9, 2015

The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party has published a document that encourages promoting "Consultative Democracy" (协 商 民主), its own Chinese brand democracy.

The Chinese definition of advisory democracy is such a form of democracy in which the PDA, when making decisions, consults with other parts of society.

Actually, the published document calls for strengthening consulting democracy. Everyone should consult - non-communist parties, public and non-public organizations, etc. All to increase the participation of masses in policies.

I remind you who are not in the topic that according to the Chinese Constitution in China there are 8 more non-communist parties. They meet in the meeting of people's representatives and vote unanimously together with the CCP. Also, the personnel department of the party takes care that the percentage of members of non-communist parties in the authorities was equal to the percentage of representatives at the meeting of people's representatives.
In the decision-making process, representatives of these parties have the right to "advise", but the SPC are accepted.

The CCP makes decisions, and everyone else has the right only to "advise", the last word same anyway for the PDA.

By the way, I asked the Chinese than the bad conditionally saying "Western model", with many parties and elections every few years. I was answered that most Chinese are uneducated, half still lives in the village, etc. The Chinese themselves say that they are uneducated. OK, let's say so, but why then it is impossible to make an educational system which would develop independent thinking in people and would have done people with comprehensive express personalities? Unfortunately, such a system is fully fully implemented anywhere else. Maybe Soviet UnionBut there were also spaces there.

I will not throw anything not meaningful Western speakers like "authoritarianism" and "Totalitarianism". But the fact that people in China generally can not affect the country's policies are undeniable.

In China, rallies, pickets and stocks are prohibited as violating public order and harmony. More precisely, it is forbidden to all political. And the non-political, type of demolition of the house, as a rule, does not cause any reaction of the authorities.

The Chinese are still lucky that the country does not oppose anti-people politics against them, so it's all smoothly. But, for example, people who demolish at home to sell the land to developers have to be unlaised, they have no ways to protect themselves.

They go to rallies, but in most cases are useless. And in critical cases are also dangerous.

At the same time, understanding all the insufficiency of the Chinese model of democracy, it is worth understanding that the introduction of a western model in China can bring to the chaos and collapse of the country.

In the words of the Chinese on the insufficient education of the population there are severe grains. It is also necessary to take into account the cultural features of China and the usual high centralization of power for this country. The last attempt to build democracy in China 100 years ago led to the 30-year-old civil war. This period entered the story as the republican period.

It is also necessary to take into account the political situation outside the country and the fact that America never misses the chance to turn political instability into instability social and economic. Speaking easier - to arrange chaos and civil war. So now inappropriate time to call for democracy in China.

But we are residents of Russia, in the construction of their own political system, it is impossible to take China as an ideal. Equally, how can not copy the West.

In the construction of Russian democracy, political creativity needs to make a political model that allows people to manage their lives at all levels. From municipal to global. It is necessary to find your Russian approach to democracy.

I believe that the basis of such democracy should be active Participation of ordinary people in the life of the country. I emphasize the word active. So that it was not like throwing the right bulletin once a few years, and so that every person on his initiative can and should organize the activities of the right direction and the government so that they must have to meet.

But such a system is impossible for political passivity and light manipulating population. To do this, on the one hand, a fully qualitatively effective education is perfect, with another completely different atmosphere in the media field and society in general.

But about it somehow another time

This article is the personal opinion of the author

If you search on the Internet released in the past weekend studio Geffen Records The sixth studio album of the American hard rock group Guns N Roses "Chinese Democracy" ("Chinese Democracy"), then in the search engine Spiegel, the words "AXL ROSE", "Guns N Roses" appear And the "April joke."

15 years old fans waited for a new album of the group. In 1991, a group under the leadership of Axel Rose with two albums called "USE Your Illusion I & II" acquired absolute world fame.

Rather, China will introduce democracy than "Chinese democracy" will be released, such rumors in last years Distributed in the musical environment. In English, an expression already appeared "when chinese democracy will be released" is something that will happen in an unattainable future.

American cola manufacturer Dr. Pepper even promised to donate to every American citizen of the drink, in case the album still appears in the stores of the plates. For this, he founded the service coupon on the Internet, which Axel Rose confidently filled out and at the same time announced the release of the album in November of this year. In the modern history of rock, this is the most long time to create a musical album.

What happened?

In 1987, the young rock and roll group Guns N Roses, named after the founders of Tracy Gan and Axel Rose, went to the international scene with the album "Appetite for Destruction". It was the name of the program and attracted the attention of the press as the "last real rock-n-rod group" and the "wise child of rock".

"Paradise City" and "Sweet Child Omine" became milestones in rock history.

Narcotic excesses, orgies and fights supplied scandals for the press, and the second album of the group "G N Rlies!" He was consecrated with a yellow press with irony and ranked album-debut.

The absolute peak in the career group reached the Albums "USE Your Illusion I & II", which were distinguished by tones. Unusual Epitically Axel Rose dedicated himself to big topics: "Civil War", "November Rain" and "Estranged", creating a whole generation of musical fans.

Both albums occupied 1 and 2 places in the Billboard Charts and remained there for 108 weeks. According to Wikipedia, over 100 million copies were sold.

Excessive lifestyle and a long-term tour of the world did not pass unnoticed for members of the group. After a plurality of internal conflicts, the Guns N Roses group broke up in the mid-1990s.

Without much inspiration, their mid-speaking album, with a re-played version of the old punk song called "The Spaghetti Incident?", Left a question mark and was the last for a long time. Axel Rose retained the right to the group name and announced in 1994 on the release of a new album. After that, the Guns N Roses was not heard.

In May 2000, the Rolling Stone Magazin magazine published a great article about Rose, regarding his unexpected performance in Rio de Janeiro, during which he played new music and informed the name of the new album: "Chinese democracy".

The article tells about the course of events in the life of Axel since the collapse of the group, about his stay at his villa in Malibu and the search for the meaning of life. Rose's child was a victim of the inhuman violence of his father, according to his words, only singing in the church choir and the love of music retained his life.

With the help of doctors and contacts from New Age, even during the time "USE Your Illusion" -turn, he tries to set his life to the scene. Hugging himself from the public, he begins a calm secluded existence, which he devotes work on his music and its improvement.

Perhaps at this time, Axel, who believes in the reincarnation, inspired by the film "Kundun" directed by Martin Rzorzuez, who documents the life and teachings of the Tibetan leader of the Dalai Lama, which is in exile, creates a song about Chinese dictatorship.

"Chinese democracy"

Earlier, we have already reported the release of this single. Recall that Rose sang this song for the first time during the performance in Las Vegas in 2001, accompanying the speech with the words "... At this time, China symbolizes the strongest and at the same time the most aggressive power in the world." The song "Chinese Democracy" leads in the same album.

Under spherical sounds with a Chinese speech, the clean sound of the electric guitar slowly creates the atmosphere until it breaks up with loud shots of tanks. Creek Rose is rapidly exploded by the song, Axel expresses its opinion. He interrupts silence - making more than ten years pursued in China Falun Gong's spiritual movement *.

Persecution Falun Gong in China is still a reality. The media and news agency, both east and in the West, mainly bypass this topic. Axel Rose makes the giant steps with its decision - to affect the real, burning theme with the goal to inform people in the world: "Accused [followers] Falun Gong for seeing your end, and you [Chinese Communist Party **] Now you can not resist!" According to Raiters, the song can make some people raise their eyebrows in surprise.

There are rumors that the name and the song itself for other reasons were detained in the release. As Raiters reported, GEFFEN RECORDS studio announced last Friday, which does not count on the publication of the album in continental China. Obviously, due to criticism by Rose, the Chinese regime and the mention of Falun Gong.

The booklet of the album also contains a picture of the Beijing artist Shi Lifeng "Red Star", showing the Chinese people suffering under an iron fist. Internet page "chineseedemocrasy.com" is blocked in China.

Compared to Albums "USE Your Illusion I & II", which were permitted by the Chinese censorship, the current album "Chinese Democracy" does not contain texts with propaganda of violence and sex.

Success confirms the correctness of Axel Rose - not to silence this relevant, politically acute theme. According to "DIEPRESSE.COM" on November 11, the new Single ranked first in 15 countries in the best dozen I-Tunes Charts, among them: USA, France, Italy, Holland and Switzerland.

Please make maturity and other album songs. Guitars sound, matching content. Themes and mood are predominantly conciliatory. The strengths of the album in the epic, in the form of ballads, songs: "Street of Dreams", "Madagascar", "Catcher In The Rye" and "This I Love", which is dedicated to Mother Rose, who died in 1996 from cancer.

A little unusual and unexpected pop song "If the world" and written for computer Game "Guitar Hero 2" "Shecklers Revenge".

From November 23, after many delays, and after 17 years since the publication of an album with its own compositions, and 15 years after the last album "Gunners" in Germany, you can buy a disc "Chinese democracy".

The entire album can be legally and free to www.myspace.com. Reference: * World Encyclopedia (2002) (World Book Encyclopedia): "Falun Gong - spiritual path The existence, which appeared in China in the early 1990s. Falun Gong teaches a meditation technique with exercises to improve physical health, as well as moral and spiritual purity. The name Falun Gong in Chinese means turning the wheels of the law. Falun Gong is also called Falun Dafa (Great Law). Falun Gong has millions of followers in many countries. "

According to the Falun Gong information center, in 1999, the Communist Government of China began mass repression of Falun Gong followers, seemingly in great popularity of this practice a threat to his power, as well as fear of losing ideological control over people. Currently, 3175 deaths of followers of this practice have already been confirmed as a result of persecution; Hundreds of thousands are in conclusion. It also has been aware of the illegal extraction of the internal bodies for sale in prisoners of Falun Gong.

** Editor's note - in the text of the song, it can be understood that "you" addressed to the Chinese Communist Party, so added in square brackets, for a better understanding of the reader. This understanding of the editor and the publisher, and not confirmed by the musicians. Original sound: "BLAME IT On The Falun Gong, They've Seen The End and You. CAN'T HOLD ON NOW.

Version in german

and his first interpretations.

Democracy - the concept of simultaneously simple and complex. This is due to the fact that, firstly, the value invested in the concept of "democracy" was changed historically, and secondly, in each given period there were various interpretations. It does not constitute exceptions and our time when about the essence of democracy, even if you discard the formulas, explicitly designed to camouflage the nonampocratic nature of the regimes ("Socialist democracy", "People's Democracy", "Direct Democracy", "Sovereign Democracy", etc.) There are hot, often politicized disputes.

Without going into details, it can be said that in the modern scientific world there are two main approaches to democracy: the first, clearly formulated by y. Shumpeter, focuses on the election nature of power. Ascending to Tryfferson, he comes from the rationality of people who will always choose a decent power in freedom. In modern Western ordinary consciousness, this idea of \u200b\u200bthe primacy of elections has grown with the theory of "natural rights": the right to choose the power perceived as "natural" and "inalienable" cannot be limited by definition, regardless of the consequences of its use. Other theorists of democracy, from the authors of the "federalist" to R. Daly, fear that nothing limited to choose can lead to the dictatorship of the majority on the one hand, or the authoritarianism of the elected leader - on the other. They believe that democratic regime may be stable if the elections will be complemented by other important elements of the political system: the separation of authorities into three independent branches, the division of powers between the center and regions, the system of constitutional guarantees of political rights of individuals and minorities. Later in the Social Democratic Tradition, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to ensure and social rights of citizens was formed (see. Read more :).

When analyzing the first Chinese ideas about democracy, it is necessary to take into account that such concepts as "liberal democracy" (the idea that democracy provides freedom), "representative democracy" (the idea that the election of representative bodies complies with the principles of democracy), as well as The ideas that the right to choose from power is one of the inalienable human rights, and democracy is the most advanced system of the public device (so clearly expressed in the well-known Aphorism of U. Cherchille), and even more so became dominant at the very West not immediately, And only approximately from the middle of the XIX to the middle of the twentieth century. Before the dominant in Western thought was a critical attitude towards democracy as the power of the poor and uneducated majority (tradition, coming from Plato and Aristotle) \u200b\u200band as a system of direct decision-making by all citizens applied only in small states (W.Montesky).

In more than 4 thousand people of the Chinese thought, the concept of "democracy" is a relatively young. It was borrowed from abroad in the second half of the XIX century. In the same period in Chinese and in Chinese thought, a whole range of new words and concepts appeared: "Elections", "Parliament", "Constitution", "Separation of the authorities", "Freedom", "Party", "Nationalism", "Socialism "," Capitalism "," President ", etc. Many of them came to China through Japan, where they were written by Chinese hieroglyphs for the first time. Chinese thinkers and politicians perceived these concepts not from pure sheet, but against the background of well-known theories and the concepts of traditional Chinese thought. This largely contributed to the features of the Chinese language, thanks to which, in a significant majority of cases, borrowed words were not transcribed, but were translated, and the new word was selected by the meaning of the hieroglyphs, which had a thousand-year history of traditional use and unwittingly transferred elements of old values \u200b\u200bto a new concept.

Principle mINBEN - the traditional basis of perception of the idea of \u200b\u200bdemocracy

The closest idea of \u200b\u200bdemolism The concept of traditional Chinese thought, from which it was possible to make some conclusions about the right of the people to solve their fate, is the principle mINBEN 民本 ("People as the basis"). Concept mINBEN It was still in ancient China, its basis - the phrase from the ancient canon "Shuzzin": "People are the root of the state, if the root is strong, then the state is in peace of mind" (quot. by :).

According to Liang Cycea, she studied this issue, it has developed in the Docignan Epoch (28, p. 44). At the same time, according to more modern research, in Preconfucian China, the concept mINBEN It was in the infancy, and was finally formed later (see). Its essence is that the sky (Tien) elects the people who will be the father of the people and the ruler of the whole Earth as an emperor - "Son of the sky" ( Tianzi). In the same "Shuzzin" it is said: "The son of the sky is a father and mother of the people, and therefore he is the ruler of the Middle Kingdom" (2, p. 107). Thus, initially the concept meant two principles: anyone can become the emperor, and he should rule in accordance with the desires of the people who were transmitted to him by heaven and coincided with the desires of the sky. Special research authors describe the idea mINBEN: "The sky in classical works is the father of all people, including Tianzz himself. Anyone, in principle, can be appointed by the sky of Tianzz, and in this respect all people are equal. Since it was believed that anyone could be elected the son of the sky, the post of Tianzi does not belong to one person or family forever "(18, p. 75).

With this last idea is due to use already in antiquity concept mINBEN Those who justified their actions to overthrow the existing ruler. So, already in "Schuzzin" says: "The ruler Sia has committed many crimes, and the sky appointed me to destroy him .... Fearing of the Heavenly Emperor (Shandi), I do not dare not to turn it ... and do not make a punishment appointed by the sky "(quot. By :) The idea of \u200b\u200bthe justice of the uprising against the emperor, the ruling not in the interests of the people, in the framework of Confucianism was particularly pronounced in the "Men-Tzu" treatise (4-3 centuries. BC). According to the famous statement of Men-Tzu, "the people are the main (in the state), followed by the spirits of the Earth and grain, the sovereign takes the last place" (2, p. 247). In another place of Men-Tzu, answering the question of the ruler of the kingdom of Qi about whether it is possible to kill his sovereign, he argued in the sense that the ruler, invaliding and justice, loses the right to be called a sovereign and becomes commoner, which can be killed (see) .

Hong Kong explorer of Taiwanese origin Jin Jootszi (Ambrose Yeo-Chi King) highlighted six basic principles of "Politics mINBEN»: 1) the importance of the people as the main subject of politics; 2) the importance of the consent of the people to the monarchical power of the ruler, which will work for the people; 3) the importance of the obligation of the ruler to protect the people and ensure its vital needs; 4) the interests of the people are higher than the private interests of the ruler; 5) the importance of the implementation of the "Perfect Board" ( vanda) and the prevention of "despotic rule" ( badao); 6) The purpose of the Board is to service the people, and not servicing the ruler (see). Naturally, the speech here is about a certain ideal derived from Confucius, Men-Tzu and other philosophers, and not about political practice.

Despite the fact that subsequently numerous reformers and supporters of democracy both in China and in other States of the Confucianic range from Kan Jui to Kim those Zhong (see :) referred to the principle mINBEN As for the evidence of the existence of a democratic tradition in China, his differences from the modern understanding of democracy are obvious. The idea of \u200b\u200bhow to manage is needed in the interests of the people is not a democracy. As for the idea that the monarch is needed by the sanction of the people to power, so that it becomes democratic, it must be supplemented by the development of mechanisms for identifying this sanction, as well as its recall. On the elections of officials, separation of authorities, equality before the law in traditional China, naturally, there was no speech. However, this does not mean that the issue of the mechanism of detecting the will of the sky and, through it, the people, was not discussed. In this regard, the interpretation of Men-Tzu is the fact of transferring to the mythical emperor Yao Throne is not his son, and Chinese reformers were also constantly referred to the official. According to Mainic Tzu, the ruler can only recommend the sky of his successor, but cannot appoint it to the ruler. In order to understand the opinion of the sky, Yao commanded the shoe to lead sacrifices and manage the affairs of the state that he did for 28 years. Perfumes during this time were satisfied, things are ordered, and the people are calm, and this, according to Meng-Tzu, testified that the people through the sky hands the shine. In addition, Shun did not immediately get the throne. With the three years of mourning, he left the capital, and only when all officials reached for him for advice, and the singers began to chant him, thereby demonstrating the will of the people, he returned (see).

This story can be considered rather as a guide to the choice of the successor based on its experience and abilities, but not as instruction on the democratic transfer of power. As for the idea of \u200b\u200bchanging the inhuman ruler by the people, then its mechanism could be only a power promotion: an uprising or a coup. In this regard, it, as many researchers noted, are really close to J. Locke about the justice of the uprising against Tirana, but it does not have other elements of the constructions of the English philosopher: the theory of natural rights, the concept of separation of the authorities, etc. (cm. ). In the absence of an idea about the mechanisms of implementing their power and public control over it, the traditional Chinese consciousness was closer to the uprising against the unrighteous sovereign than gradual reforms in order to expand the rights and freedoms of the population. This, in particular, speaks and quick assimilation by the Chinese thought of the Western term "revolution", which began to translate as gamin (革命). According to a number of researchers, the traditional importance of this term - "change of heavenly sanction of the ruler to power" is largely maintained in modern Chinese (see :).

Interpretation of the term "democracy" in English-Chinese dictionaries and translation literatureXIX. century

Another source that influence the early Chinese ideas was the first interpretations and translations of this word by foreigners. In the transfer literature, dictionaries, information articles in journals published in the XIX century in China by foreigners (first of all, missionaries) can be found a lot of such interpretations.

It is striking that in the most famous English-Chinese dictionaries of the XIX century, the Western authors of "democracy" themselves are unattended, but as a negative phenomenon. Thus, in the "Dictionary of the Chinese" from 1815 to 1823 (1782-1834), the word "democracy" is equipped with an English commentary: "Representative, as not to have a super manager." The Chinese translation of this phrase sounds as follows: "How unacceptable so that no one has led, it is also unacceptable that many people ruled randomly" (15). Chinese historian Syun Yuezzhi, who first paid attention to the vocabulary interpretation of the concept of "democracy", in connection with this notes: "In Chinese lexicon, it was obvious, there was no one term for the translation of the word" democracy ", and Morrison had to use a whole proposal to express his (negative) attitude to this concept. " (19, p. 73) In the English and Chinese group released in 1847 (1796-1857), Democracy (1796-1857), Democracy is explained in Chinese as "State Management by many people" (众人 的 国统), and Equipped with the following explanations: "The principle of the management of many people" (众人 的 治理), "disorderly management of many people" (多 人 乱管), "abuse of power by low people" (小 民 弄权) (14). "English and Chinese Dictionary" V. Lobyda (1822-1893), which took place from 1866 to 1869 in Hong Kong, gives a neutral translation mINCHEN.民政 ("The Board of the People"), but adds the following Chinese explanations: "Management of many people" (众人 管辖) and "abuse of power by simple people" (白 姓 弄权) (13). Only in the dictionary, published in 1902 by the Shanghai Publishing House "Shangu Inyshuguan", interpretation of the concept of "democracy" acquire neutral character: translation mINCHEN. There is explained as "control over the power of simple people" (白 姓 操权) and "People's Department of State Cases" (民主 之 国政) (34).

The negative interpretation of the concept of "democracy" in foreign dictionaries is quite natural. It is explained by the fact that in the West, the tradition of understanding democracy, as anything not limited to the power of the poorest and uneducated majority, carried out directly in a relatively small state, which is still from Plato and Aristotle and developed S.Montesky, as a whole, remained approximately the middle of the XIX century. The struggle for the expansion of the rights of the population, against the monarchical regimes was not under the slogan of democracy, but under the slogans of the Republic and Freedom (as, for example, during the War for Independence in the United States and the Great French Revolution). The republic based on representative rule is often opposed to democracy as a direct rule of the people. The system of "checks and counterweights", that is, the separation of the authorities at the federal level and between the federal government and states, was developed by the theorists of American constitutionalism to counter possible democratic tyranny against minorities and personal rights. For the dangers of democracy, many European thinkers indicated for freedom, for example, E. Berk and A. De Tokville. Although the idea of \u200b\u200bthe identity of democracy to representative board and the idea that democracy contributes to the expansion of freedom, existed earlier (for example, in the works of T. Jefferson), but they have become dominant only by the end of the XIX century, and after that they were questioned.

Although the vocabulary comments could form the basics of understanding the democracy by Chinese readers, they did not give the term itself to translate this concept. Term minzhu (民主), Behind which the meaning of "democracy" later was fixed, it is found in the ancient Chinese texts, but his meaning is completely different there: "the ruler of the people." According to Chinese researchers, in the new value "People's Board", it began to be used in China in the 60s-70s of the XIX century in the translation literature. For the first time he appeared in the translated on chinese and published in 1864 by the Presbyterian missionary V. A. P. Martin of the Book of American Lawyer-Ruveth and diplomat G. Yuiton "Elements of International Law" (24). Along with the term "democracy", in this, a number of new words for China directly related to the idea of \u200b\u200bdemocracy were used in this transfrett, among Chinese intellectuals. Thus, the Chinese reader could find out that "the US Great Policy is to ensure that all states remain democratic (民主), that" if the country is democratic "(民主 之 国), then its rulers and officials are freely elected by the population in accordance with the laws of the state. " The book also reported that "in democratic countries, the obligation to send and take envoys can be carried out either by leaders or by the National Assembly (国会), or jointly with the leader and the National Assembly (see). In the 70s, the term minzhu It was already widely used on the pages of Sigo Jinshi Huibian (published in Shanghai official digest of publications about foreign life), as well as the popular newspaper of American and British missionaries "Wanggo Gunbao" (see).

Among Chinese linguists, the opinion is common that the term minzhu In the meaning of "democracy" has a Japanese origin (33, p. 291). Direct evidence of the influence of the Japanese term minsu. On V.A.P. Martin or the first authors of articles on democracy in Chinese newspapers and magazines have not yet been found, but such an impact is quite likely. In Chinese, there is a whole group of words that existed earlier in another meaning, but changed it under the influence of the Japanese, where they were chosen to transfer new Western terms without any connection with their initial value. Japanese borrowing specialist Chen Shengbao refers to them and minzhu (38). At the same time, it is obvious that the term minzhu, unlike the term minzian (about which it will be discussed below) There are much more fundamental roots in traditional Chinese thought.

Term minzhu In the works of reformers of the second halfXIX. century and the idea of \u200b\u200bdemocracy

The origin of the concept of democracy cannot be considered outside the context of the internal political struggle in China in the second half of the XIX century. By this time, the political weakness of China, his defeat in wars with European powers, was questioned by the traditionalist theories of self-sufficiency of Chinese civilization, wildness and vitality of residents of all other "barbaric" countries. A group of supporters of "assimilation of overseas affairs" (洋务派) originally acted against the conservatives. Her leaders, large government officials Zeng Hofan (1811-1872), Lee Hongzhan (1823-1901), Zhang Chegidun (1837-1909), Feng Guifene (1809-1874) and others put forward the slogan "self-confined" (自强), the meaning of which It was formulated in the well-known formula Zhang Zhiduna "Chinese science as a basis, Western Science - for (utilitarian) applications." This meant the dosage use of some, primarily the military-technical, achievements of Western civilization while maintaining the traditional political and ideological foundations of the empire.

The policy of "self-esteem" did not lead to solving the problems of China. Invertible uprisings, new military defeats (in the Franco-China War of 1884-1885, and later, in the Japanese War of 1894-1895) led to the emergence of the direction of thought, whose supporters in Chinese historical science are usually called early reformers (早期 改良派 or 早期 维维派). They performed a program of deeper reforms in various fields: education, economics, culture and politics. Their essence was reduced to the fundamental change in the foundations of the country's social structure and the adoption of those elements of foreign experience, which ideologists of the "self-esteem" attributed not only to objects for utilitarian use, but also to the base. In the political field, the main requirement of this group was the introduction of representative bodies, and it is in this context that new terms appear in their lexicon minzhu and minzianwhich reflected various aspects of the European concept of "democracy".

Despite the nomination of proposals for changes and in other areas, the main difference between the group of "early supporters of reforms" was precisely the presence of a political program. At the same time, from supporters of political changes in a later period, who advocated revolutionary methods, they distinguished their reformity, support for non-violent, evolutionary methods for the implementation of social changes and hostility to mass movements and revolution. In this regard, this group may be called a group of "supporters of political reforms".

Supporters of political reforms can be attributed, in particular, the first Chinese envoy in England and France, Publisher Van Tao (1828-1897), entrepreneur and politician Zheng Guanin (1842-1922), his associate and theoretics Chen Chi reforms (1855-1900), Translator and publicist Yan Fu (1854-1921), diplomat, entrepreneur and journalist Song Yizhen (1857-1931), Poet and diplomat Juan Zunsyan (1848-1905), Diplomat Xu Founded (1838- 1894), Hoe Qi Qi Qi (1859-1914) and Hu Liyuan (1847-1916) and a number of other public figures. The main organizers of the unsuccessful attempt of the so-called "hundred days of reforms" are also adjacent to them. 1898 (戊戌 变法): Kan Yuese (1858-1927), Tang Sytene (1865-1898), Liang Cyceau (1860-1911), whose program in the main points was practically no difference from proposals of other supporters of political reforms. These thinkers and publicists, despite all the differences in the worldview, made a relatively slender and one-piece political program based on the general understanding of the most important political terms. This understanding did not always correspond to European counterparts, in connection with which it often caused a false impression of confusion from researchers.

Thoughts on the need to improve the government system in parallel with borrowing foreign technologies have been expressed by the supporters of the "assimilation of overseas affairs." So, Zeng Hofan in a diary record of June 3, 1862, dedicated to a conversation with subordinates, noted: "If we want to find a path to self-cultivation, urgent tasks should be to improve public administration ( xu Zhengsha, 修 政事) and the search for talented people, and the art of manufacture of shells, guns, training for the production of steamers and other tools should follow these tasks "(17). The likely author of the expression "self-confidence" of Feng Guyfen noted that China lags behind "barbarians" not only in the field of technologies, but also because of the greater "gap between the ruler and the people." (17). Some of the most radical supporters of "self-esteem" also talked about the need to introduce representative bodies (32, p.371-374), which they saw as advisers at the existing power, although others sharply criticized these plans.

Proponents of political reforms went further. Well acquaintances with the European political device (many of them lived abroad for several years), they understood that in addition to the absolute monarchy dominated in China junzhu 君主 ("The Board of the Monarch" or "Autocrat"), there are still at least two political regimes in the world - the opposite monarchy of democracy or the Republic minzhu 民主 ("The Board of the People") and the constitutional monarchy junmin Gungzhu 军民 共 ("The Joint Board of the Monarch and the People").

Thus, in published in 1882, the collection of articles Van Tao, one of the first supporters of political reforms, he wrote that the state systems of the Western countries can be divided into three types. In one ruler, the emperor is called " eNBOL.) - And these are absolute monarchies ( junchuzhzhi GO), the same as Chinese. In another ruler is called "President" ( bolisytyndhe), these are democratic republics ( myignzhzhzhi GO.) existing in France, Switzerland and the United States. In third, the ruler is called "King" ( jing. From King), they exist in England, Italy and Spain. According to Van Tao, the system of state administration of these three types of countries differs in a radically (see :). In the "Description of Japan" published in 1890, Juan Tzunsyan writes that in the states of the world "there is either the management system led by one person called an absolute monarchy ( junzhu) or a system at which many people discuss politics called democracy ( minzhu), or the system in which the tops and the bottoms make the duties and power, called the constitutional monarchy ( junmin Gungzhu) "(Quot. By :). According to Tan Sytethe, "in Western countries there are parliaments (议院), and the legislature and executive are divided. The legislators are deputies of parliament, and the executive power is carried out by monarchs and the people "(quot. By :).

It is necessary to explain here that the terms "Absolute monarchy", "constitutional monarchy" and "democracy" for the translation of the factory Chinese terms can only be consumed conditionally, since their value does not fully coincide. The greatest coincidence of the meaning is observed in the Chinese term junzhu and the western term "absolute monarchy": under junzhu In China, the traditional government system was understood, limited only ideologically, but not institutionally. Minzhu - This is not just a "democracy", but rather "Democracy-Republic", i.e. Full power of the poor and uneducated people in the absence of a monarch. This is not a mechanism for realizing the interests (rights) of the people (a term was used to express this value minzian), but the authorities of the people who overthrow the monarch itself. About prevalence in that period of term minzhu In the meaning of "Democracy-Republic" testifies to the appeal of Xue Foundan to the French president during the presentation of the credentials in 1890 as the great president of the Great French Democratic State (大 法 民主 国), as well as the emergence of him in the title of the First Republic in the Chinese territory - "Taiwan Minzhugugo "(台湾 民主 国) - the state proclaimed in May 1895 by the local authorities after the transfer of Taiwan Japan in the Simonoski Treaty, and existed only a few days to the Japanese occupation of the island.

It cannot be said that European thought was completely alien to identifying democracy with the republican form of government. In such a meaning about democracy, European conservatives were spoken - opponents of republican revolutions, for example, E.berk. But in European political thought, especially in the second half of the XIX century, this line, naturally, was not the main one. Democracy was rather considered a method not related to one or another political regime. However, the more the republics became, the more they were associated with democracy, moreover, the critical assessment and democracy as a political regime and the republican form of government gradually changed to a positive.

The political ideas of the most radical Chinese reformers of the second half of the XIX century. Large-dimensioned estimates of European conservatives. In relation to democracy, they walked for European thought, but until the end of the XIX century. (And even later) lagged behind, keeping her understanding as an unlimited power of the poor majority and a negative attitude towards it. As a result, in China "Among those who wanted to overcome the absolute monarchy in the XIX century, there was not a single person who would not criticize" democracy "" (19, p. 87).

So, Van Tao criticized as a monarchy ( junzhu) and democracy ( minzhu) and supported the joint board of the monarch and the people ( junmin Gungzhu) (cm. ). Chen Chi, calling for the introduction of parliament ( july) At the same time, it also criticized democracy: "The folk board system will lead to chaos caused by attacks on higher-level." Sun Uizhen argued that the introduction of a democratic system and presidential elections would lead to the "destruction of the laws of the state, as a result of which the parties appear for the equation of the poor and rich" (quot. By :).

Moreover, many supporters of political reforms believed that for Europe, where the people were enlightened, rich and prepared, the republican-democratic construction is suitable, there he even strengthens the state. However, it cannot be introduced in China, at least in the foreseeable future, while the Chinese people remain poor and uneducated. Such a look was adhered to, for example, one of the first translators of Western Labor on Chinese Yan Fu. His views in concentrated form were formulated in a series of articles published in the first half of 1895 in the Tianjin newspaper "Zhibao". Being under the impression of the defeat of China in the war with Japan, Yan Fu spoke with the criticism of the policy of "self-esteem." Based on the theory of J. Darvin and the Social Darwinism of the city of Vestser, he explained the fundamental difference between Western and Chinese civilizations by the fact that the latter is not based on freedom. It is thanks to the "difference between freedom and non-free", according to Yan Fu, China faced difficulties in the development of sciences and in state administration (see). Claiming that both civilizational systems are holistic, in the article "Sources of Power" he, obviously criticizing the concept zhongsuue Wei Ti, Sisyue Wei Yun, explained that in Western civilization "Freedom is the basis, and democracy - means ( yun.) "(以 自由 为 为, 以 民主 为 用; see). At the same time, Yan Fu believed that the full power of the people in China is the case of a remote future: "Does it mean that today we can refuse the rulers? In no case. Why? Yes, because it has not yet come such time, they did not work out (necessary) habits, people are not ready for self-government. It is unable to even exemplary states of the West, what to say about China! " (Quot. by :). In the mouth of the committeed ruler, he invests the following words: "I put myself over millions of people only if necessary, for they could not control themselves. The people could not control themselves, because his abilities were not yet revealed, the forces were not yet stupid, the morality did not reach perfection ... Freedom was given to the people with heaven, and how can I take it away? ... So, as soon as a happy day comes, when people can manage themselves, I will return it to him [all power] "(quota. By :)

Interpretation of the concepts of "Constitutional Monarchy", "Representative bodies / parliament" and "Folk Rights"

Inappropriate for China "Democracy-Republic" supporters of political reforms opposed the system they denoted junmin Gungzhu 君民 共 主 or jianmin Jianzhu 君民 兼主 ("Joint Board of the Monarch and People"). So, Hei Qi and Hu Liyuan noted: "With respect of the rights of the people ( minzian) The ruler still continues to receive his post by inheritance. In democracy ( minzhu) The people elect a person who has the power in the state for a period of several years. Speaking about the rights of the people, we would like the Chinese monarch to inherit the throne from generation to generation and that the place of which is determined by the sky, did not change. We are not talking about a democratic state "(35, p. 406). Liang Cycao wrote: "The advantage of the introduction of representative bodies ( july) It is that the power of the monarch and the power of the people is harmoniously connected, the wishes easily reach [leaders]. When the discussion and execution of the laws are divided, things are easy to complete "(27, p. 2). Van Tao followed: "When one person manages from above, and hundreds of officials and tens of thousands of ordinary people are fussing down, the order comes out - and it is necessary to fulfill him, the word is said - and it cannot be challenged - this is the Board of the Monarch ( junzhu). When public affairs are negotiated in parliament ( july 议院), and if the majority approves them, they pass, and if not, they are suspended, and the president is no more than the highest talent - this is the Board of the People ( minzhu). When on all major political issues facing the courtyard: military, criminal, ceremonial, sweatings, awarding, fines, it is necessary to collect people in the upper and lower chambers of parliament, and when the monarch is approved, but without the consent of the people, the decision cannot pass, and With the approval of the people, but without the consent of the monarch, the decision can also not pass, but only after the opinion of the monarch and the people will coincide, the decision can be made public everywhere - this is the joint rule of the monarch and the people ( junmin Gungzhu). In writings, they say that if the monarch rules, then permanent calm and long reign can only be achieved if there is a monarch, like Yao and Shunya. If the people rules, the system of legislation becomes confusing, and it is difficult to achieve the unity of the will. If you bring it to the limit, you can not avoid abuse. Only when monarch and people rule together ( junmin Gungzhu), There is a relationship between the tops and nizami, the innermost thoughts of the people reach the tops, the mercy of the monarch also lies to the nizam. Such a discussion of cases with a state ship is a forgotten idea that has existed even during the period of up to three dynasties "(20, p.18-19).

Similar thoughts find both the comedors of Kan Jugy Wang Cannanya: "If the rights of the people (Minzuan) are partially used, then there will be thousands of ears and millions of eyes, which cannot be closed or bungled. And if a thousand people show something, then it is impossible not to see. If you need to implement an order or a ban, everything will be carried out in accordance with the will of the emperor. Therefore, although they may say that the rights of the people are partially implemented, there is no better way to implement them than using the power of the emperor. Moreover, when people have no power, they do not understand that the country belongs to all people, and are distinguished from the emperor. When people have some power, they understand that the state is their overall concern, and they will approach the emperor "(16, p. 162-163).

The form of the board to which supporters of political reforms (the joint rule of the monarch and the people), historians from the PRC, are usually identified with the modern concept of "constitutional monarchy" (in modern language - 君主 立宪). However, this identification is not quite accurate. Indeed, the term junmin Gungzhu European constitutional monarchies were designated. Sometimes it was even said about the presence of these states of the Constitution. However, when it came to China, no speech about the Constitution at that time did not go, therefore the concept of "constitutional" for such a monarchy is conditionally. It is more accurate to translate this term, at least in the application to China, as a "representative monarchy", as the key value in it is not a constitution, but the representation of the population.

All supporters of transformation of the traditional political system advocated the introduction of elected representative bodies in China, which, as a rule, were denoted by the term july 议院. Translate this term concept "Parliament" is also not exactly accurate. First, under july There were not only nationwide representative bodies, but also local. Secondly, the purpose of the introduction of these bodies at the time in China was considered not to limit the power of the monarch, but ensuring it with a sufficient number of tips and recommendations emanating from the population.

Thus, the meaning of the creation of democratic institutions, according to the Chinese political reformers of the XIX century, was not in the realization of the right of citizens to self-government, and not in the representation of various public interests, but in the awakening of the creative forces of the people in order to use best Soviets and proposals for public administration, in strengthening the unity of the people to achieve nationwide purposes. One of the first supporters of the introduction of the Parliamentary system Zheng Guanin, for example, wrote: "Parliament ( july) There is a facility that discusses the affairs of state administration and uniform mental forces are aimed at the general benefit of the state ... There are many obstacles between the ruler and the people, because of which the will of the first and wishes of the second receive the victorious direction, the power of crushing and the power weakens ... " (Quot. by :). Calling "To establish a parliament in the capital and command throughout the subway, to hold public elections of the rulers of counties and regions", Yan Fu emphasized that this is the only way to "awaken in every love for China" and "raise the moral qualities of our people to such an extent to Drain of his strength and will in a single whole, sent them to the external enemy to rebuff "(quot. By :). Another supporter of reforms, Chen Chi, who considered parliament the source of military power and national welfare of European and American states, in the book "Yunshu" (1893) argued that the Western parliamentary monarchy, according to which he proposed to reform the Chinese state system, "unites the monarchy and the people In a single whole, and the intentions of the ruler and subjects merge into a single bed "(quote.

It is noteworthy in connection with this, the desire to associate the monarchy with the private interests of the monarch often, often found among the supporters of political reforms, for which the concept of traditional Chinese philosophy has been used s 私 ("Private"), having a negative meaning, and the system junmin Gungzhu and democracy minzhuproviding the rights of the people ( minzian) - with the common interests of the state, expressed traditional concept gUN公 ("General"), had a positive color. Such a interpretation we encounter, for example, at HE Qi and Hu Liyuan, associated minzian With the "general state of the whole nation" (国民 之 公国), which was contrasted with the "private state" (私国) of the monarch (11). Liang Cyceao wrote in 1897: "What is the monarchy ( junzhu)? This is only private. What is the board of the people ( minzhu)? This is only the general "(29).

Such an approach in theoretical plan can be compared with the theory of "common will" J.-zh. Rousseau, however, in this case, it is certainly necessary to consider in the Chinese socio-historical context as caused by the desire of supporters of political reforms to borrow Western political mechanisms not as a public development goal, but as a tool for the revival of a powerful, influential and efficient Chinese state.

Comparing the concept of "Joint Management of the Monarch and the People" of the XIX century reformers with an ancient principle mINBEN, It can be said that, thanks to representative bodies, the system of ideal authorities acquired the missing link - the criterion for compliance with the Board of people's desires that will speak directly. At the same time, in almost anywhere in the compositions of the XIX century, it was not about the mechanisms of the "joint government of the monarch and the people", about the separation of the authorities and the Constitution. Meanwhile, in the descriptions of the Board of the West of the West Concept of Constitution and the "separation of the authorities" presented quite often. However, unlike the ideas of elections and parliament, they were to a lesser extent were perceived by Chinese theorists, since they were significantly more alien to traditional Chinese thinking. The very requirement of the Constitution and the National Legislative Authority (国会) for the first time in the general form, only the works of the Kan Jui and some other participants "100 days of reforms" are found, however, according to a number of researchers, it was these passages that were later inserts, and in fact during the proposal reform period Kan Juwe did not go beyond the supporters of the introduction of a representative monarchy generally accepted in the environment (see).

Appeal to the principle mINBEN Especially characteristic of the participants of the "hundred days of reforms". So, Kan Yuei in the book "The study of the teachings of the Confucius on the reform of the state system" (孔子 改制 考) convinced readers that the idea of \u200b\u200brepresentative bodies nominated the Confucius himself. In proof, he led the story of the arrival of the shun, the power to which Yao handed over. Having received power, Shun "To convene a representative body ( july) Collected Sanovnikov in the Throne Hall of Mintan and opened the gate from all four sides "(8, p. 76). The need for such interpretation of antiquity caused by both the Chinese tradition of appeal to the historical precedent and the practical desire of reformers to find the best form of the conviction of the authorities in the need for reforms was clearly formulated by Liang Qiucha in his work "Study of the representative chamber of antiquity" (古议院 考) dedicated to the search Ancient sources of Chinese parliamentarism. Liang Qicho wrote: "Speaking about Western politics, you need to look for roots in antiquity." Based on the study of the ancient Chinese texts, he concluded that although the term july In antiquity, there were no representative bodies allegedly existed (see).

The idea of \u200b\u200brepresentative bodies, including parliament, was known in China much earlier, for example, from the book of a collection of documents "Description of four continents" (四洲志), compiled under the guidance of a major official Lin Zesyui (1785-1850) in 1841, also from Geographical descriptions of foreign countries of such authors as Wei Yuan (1794-1857), Xu Jiiu (1795-1873) and Liang Tinnan (1796-1861). However, the terminology applied in them does not have anything in common with the terminology of the group of supporters of political reforms. In addition, according to Chinese researchers, in various sources of the XIX century you can meet about 30 different options Transfer of the word "parliament", including several options for borrowing and various European languages \u200b\u200b- baliman., bolimen, bolaman etc. (31, p.74-78; 22). What is the reason for the election of political reforms of the term july? Taiwan Researcher Guy Hongcheng gives the following explanation: "Why at the time Liang Qicho and other representatives of the intelligentsia originally chose the Word july To transfer the concept of "parliament"? Considering the lessed Liang Cyçal analogies with the system of "imperial advisers" existing in ancient times. jiani 諫议), it can be concluded that it understood the functions of parliament to a certain extent as the function of "imperial advisers" ( jian Dafa. 諫大夫), "Main scientists" ( battle博士), "leading debate" ( ilan 议郎) and other critical protruding imperial dignitaries ( yanguan言官). Therefore, hieroglyph and (议) from the word july (议院) First of all, they were associated with the system already existing in antiquity yanguanThe advanced concept, according to which the emperor allowed officials to discuss the affairs of government and give advice. In addition, thanks to the presence in the name july Hieroglyph yuan (院) This institution could be considered as a government relating to the system of imperial power. Thus, to translate into Chinese the word "parliament" as july meant to give it the meaning of the body or chamber established by the Government "(22).

Meaningful alternative july There was a term goruway 国会, unlike july Perceived not as an organ in the system of monarchy power, but as a state administration authority, created by the people. About his guideline as a body of precisely state power, and not just a deliberative, the hieroglyph testified gO 国 - state. Term guhaway Sometimes used by supporters of political reforms for the name of the parliaments of foreign countries. For example, Van Tao translated the name of the French National Assembly (30). However, according to GUi Hongchean, he has never been used in the official reports of the court with proposals to establish representative bodies (22).

Thus, under july Supporters of political reforms in China understood both parliament (applied to Western States) and representative bodies as a whole, including those who have a deliberative character (in this sense, the term was usually applied to designate elected bodies in China, which were asked to create). The difference here was very conditional, because concrete authority july discussed in the most general form.

In the historiography of the PRC, it is customary to criticize the supporters of political reforms of the time for the "Agreement" and "inconsistency". However, it seems that in this case, the Western ideas of supporters of evolutionary development are eagerly accepted by Chinese reformers not only for tactical reasons, that is, due to the inability to offer monarchy to the monarchy. Their sincere and detailed explanation of their position, criticism of the forthcoming of the people, especially in applied to the Chinese conditions, and the opposition of the advantages of the constitutional monarchy makes it possible to conclude about sincere concerns about the ability of the uneducated people to take over the power and possible consequences of this for Chinese civilization. In addition, it is obvious to the compliance of the Western evolutionary approach to traditional Chinese ideas within the framework of the concept mINBEN: Power should be carried out for the people, but not the people himself, but by the emperor with the help of specially educated and trained people. The role of the representative body in this sense was to be to ensure that power is carried out for the people, in the formulation of its aspirations for power.

That is why supporters of political reforms actively offered the introduction of various qualities. So, Chen Guanin believed that, representing the whole of the people, the parliament itself had to consist only of prosperous people who have reached certain "academic success." Chen Chi believed that the age of participating in the elections should be at least 30 years, and the state is at least 1 thousand jinee. Hei Qi and Hu Liyuan proposed that only owners of the title could be elected into representative boding level bodies sucaya, District - juizhena, and provincial - jinshi. (7, p. 61; 26, p. 58).

Democracy I. minzian

From the foregoing, it is clear that an important role in the construction of supporters of political reforms of the second half of the XIX century was played by the term minzian (power, rights, powers of the people). Unlike minzhu, minzian - The term is obviously Japanese origin. Such a combination of hieroglyphs in classic Chinese texts does not occur, although the characters themselves mIN. ("People"), and quan (Power, rights) naturally existed. According to most researchers, the term minzian (in Japanese minken) It was drawn up in Japan, where after reforms Maji had the movement "For freedom and power of the people" (自由 民权), and then borrowed by Chinese reformers. According to Cheng Shengbao classification, it can be attributed to another group (compared to minzhu) Chinese borrowings from the Japanese language: the terminas, "re-created in Japan by a combination of Chinese hieroglyphs" (10, p. 22).

According to Syun Yuezhzhi, for the first time in China, His Suntao was used, at that time - the Messenger in England, in the diary record of May 19, 1878, noting that the "Rights of the People" was provided in Western monarchies. A somewhat later in the same meaning was used by Juan Tzunsyan and Xue Foundan (see). According to Syun Yuezhzhi, the Japanese influence on the last two is not subject to doubt because the term minzhu Juan Zunsynyan is used in the book "Description of Japan" (日本国志), which he wrote from 1879 to 1887, when he was a messenger in Japan. Syue Fuchen also wrote the preface to this book, and in 1890, together with Juan Zunsyna, he was sent by the Messenger to Europe. As for GU Suntao, here the evidence of borrowing is not so straight. According to Syun Yuezhzhi, with a large probability, he could learn about this term from conversations in England with the Japanese Messenger in this country, which often told the Chinese counterpart about the state structure of his country (see).

In 1893, the term mINTSUAN Appears in the works of the entrepreneur and the policy of Zheng Guanin, known for its criticism of the policy of "self-investment" and theory zhongsuue Wei Ti, Sisyue Wei YunAccording to which it was necessary to adopt some Western, mainly technical, innovations, leaving the constant essence of the Chinese political and economic system. More precisely, term minzian Appeared in the book published by Zheng Guaniain as an application to one of the heads of his published books "On the hazards threatening in the era of prosperity" (盛 危言) of the Japanese author of T.Miyam "On the Rights of the People, Republic and the Rights of the Monarch" (民权 共治 君权 三 论) (31).

Zheng Guanin called for borrow not only technical elements of Western civilization ( yun.), but also those belong to the "basis" ( t.). To the last, he, in particular, attributed parliamentarism and democracy. Calling to the creation of representative bodies, Zheng Guanin used the term minzian To refer to the participation of the people (7, p.60-62). The term of the same minzhu Zheng Guanina meant the "rust of the people" in the sense of "republic" and opposed the monarchy ( junzhu). Zheng Guanin himself advocated the establishment of a Constitutional monarchy of the British type in China, which he called junmin Gongzhzhi ("Joint Board of the Monarch and People") (37, p. 314, 316).

Thus, coming to China, the term minzian Changed its value compared to Japanese. If in Japan, he meant the democracy itself, that is, the power of the people, then in China, its importance has become different from the meaning of the term minzhu. XUN Yuezhzhi so explained this difference: "At that time minzian understood as "power, powers, the rights of the people" (人民 的 权利), and minzhu As a "host of the owner" (人民 作主), that is, the state in which the people dominate (人民 统治 国家). Thus, the term minzhu Much more clearly passed the indivisible and non-operable nature of the folk sovereignty and directly opposed the concept juntsuan (the power of the monarch, monarchy). The meaning of the term minzian It was quite uncertain, it could be interpreted both as "full power of the people", and as "partial power of the people." In the first interpretation, he served as synonym minzhu. In the second interpretation could be understood as the provision of partial rights to the people without overthrowing the power of the monarch. Thus, he also had an antimonarchic aspect, and an aspect of coexistence with monarchical authorities. Its antimonarchic edge was not so frightening, and provided for the possibility of coexistence with the monarchy. Such flexibility of semantic interpretation was very convenient for reformers. Thanks to their approach to the monarchy rule, concluded both in the fight against him, and in search of a compromise, minzian He became the most ideal slogan, reflecting and contradiction with the monarchical authorities, and the possibility of coexistence with it, and stressed the need to have political rights, not overthrowing the monarchist system "(31, p. 10-11).

According to a number of Chinese researchers, belonging to a fairly amorphous group of "early reformers" should be determined precisely on the promotion and support of the slogan minzian. For this purpose, the opposition to democracy cannot serve ( minzhu) Constitutional monarchy junmin Gungzhu or calls for the creation of representative bodies julySince both representatives of the "self-confederation" movement can be met.

conclusions

In the views of the reformers of the second half of the XIX century on democracy, despite all their differences, a number of general moments can be distinguished.

1. Regardless of the term used, the purpose of the introduction of elements of a democratic political system for all of the Chinese reformers was to improve the Chinese management system, giving it greater dynamism, in order to eliminate the threat from the external enemy, so that China was supposed to occupy the appropriate (t . And the leading place in world politics). It was the military defeat of China in wars with Western powers, as well as with Japan (which, in the opinion of Chinese reformers, won due to the successful borrowing of some elements of Western civilization) and served as the impetus for the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe defectivity or the backwardness of the traditional Chinese civilization, at least in her Some aspects. Expressing this thought, Kan Juwely wrote: "If the Europeans did not come to China, we could not make changes, but now there are several dozen states that they oppose China and oppress him ... Du Fu said:" It is impossible to allow the whites (strangers) again Izped the blood of clothing of Chinese subjects. " If foreigners come to China, our country will die and Confucianism will fall into decay "(quot. By.).

2. In the desire to make China's powerful power, which he was for most of its history, supporters of the borrowing of Western democracy did not dismiss supporters of the "self-confederation" policy, they discernted only about the scale of the necessary borrowing. Reformers criticized supporters of "self-study", believing that only technical advances to borrow are not impossible and practically impossible, since the development of technology in the West became possible due to the participation of the "people" in the state management. Thus, the idea of \u200b\u200bdemocracy in China, unlike the West, has not grown organically from the actual Chinese philosophical concepts or religious ideas, but became the result of foreign policy problems, and, naturally, was considered as a means of solving these problems. Only backs, after acquaintance with Western political theories, Chinese thinkers began to search for analogies and close concepts in traditional philosophy, first of all, in principle mINBEN. This meant, in particular, that the failure of democracy in solving these problems could lead to the fact that the tool will be considered unsuccessful and the idea of \u200b\u200bits replacement to another will arise.

3. The idea of \u200b\u200b"natural rights" and the concept of "inalienable rights" growing out of it, which became the basis of the struggle for democracy as for the right of a person to participate in management, was alien to Chinese consciousness. However, in the period under review and in the West, this concept has not yet received universal distribution. For example, the author of the first translation of the term "natural rights" to the Chinese language Yan Fu founded his ideas about freedom on J.ST. Milella and Sprint, who did not consider the freedom of the unconditional right of all people. Like utilitarian J.S. Mill and Social Darwinist G. Westr, whose works, thanks to the translation of Yan Fu, acquired extraordinary popularity in China, despite differences in the views on the essence and mechanisms of social development, considered freedom as a result of the slow evolution of society, And authoritarian despotism as a necessary way to control at the lowest stages of development. In the famous treatise "On Freedom", J.S. Milly, for example, wrote: "Despotism is a legitimate method to manage barbarians if the goal of good and is really achieved. Freedom in principle is not applicable to the society preceding the era, where you can safely improve through free and equal discussions "(6, p. 12).

4. In this regard, the other general representation of Chinese reformers acquires greater importance: on the backwardness of the Chinese people and its unpreparedness to the immediate introduction of democracy. The consequence of this, according to almost all the reformers, was the fact that the most appropriate form of the Board was not a republic, but a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch ( jun.) and the "people" ( mIN.) will be managed together ( junmin Gungzhu). Introduction of the net reign of unprepared and uneducated people ( minzhu) It seemed dangerous, as the society would be disconnected, would lead to the inner struggle, riots and even to the revolution. In this case, you can compare understanding of democracy ( minzhu) Chinese theorists with Aristotelian: as the authorities of the poorest and uneducated majority. At the same time, as an ideal, unlike Aristotle, they nominated not politics (having signs of democracy and oligarchy), but the "joint government of the monarch and the people", in which the "law of the people" will be observed ( minzian). Antonym Termina minzian ("The Rights of the People") was the term juntsuan ("Monarch's Rights"), and minzhu ("People power") - junzhu ("The Power of the Monarch"). Thus, the introduction minzian perceived as a more moderate option compared to minzhu - Ensuring the rights of the people did not mean the infringement of the rights of the monarch, but the power of the people found the elimination of the rule of the ruler. From here frequently found in the works of Chinese supporters of reforms of opposition minzhu ("Democracy") and minzian ("Rights of the People", which can be observed for the people, but not implemented by him directly), as well as junzhu ("Monarchy") and mINZH ("Democracy") - junmin Gungzhu ("a constitutional monarchy").

5. The translation of the term "democracy" was finally approved in China until the second decade of the twentieth century. Up to this time, other expressions were used: the transcription of the English term ( demochalasi. 德谟克拉西), mINCHEN. 民政 ("People's Board"), pinmignzhui 平民主义 ("The Principle of National Equality"), shuminzhui 庶 民主义 ("The Principle of Mass Management"), minbenzhui 民本主义 ("The principle of the people like root base") (29, p.329-330). And only then for "democracy", the term has finally been fixed minzhuHowever, its value has changed, turning into direct compliance with the European concept (at least in the linguistic sense). The term changed and the value of the term minzian: Sun Yatsen and other revolutionary figures of the beginning of the twentieth century minzian Zhui means the full power of the people, that is, from former understanding minzian It remains only part of it (31, p.402; 21). Later term minzian went out of use, turning into jenzuan - The modern concept of "human rights".

Nevertheless, the correct understanding of the first interpretations of the concept of "democracy" in China has a great theoretical and practical significance. Their study allows you to see how foreign concepts came to China, being rethought under the influence of cultural and linguistic tradition and political circumstances. It also creates a basis for considering the further evolution of understanding of democracy in China, the role of "democratic" slogans in social movements in this country, and gives a rich material for inter-civilizational comparisons.

Literature:

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Art. publ. entitled « The arrival of the concept of "democracy" in China and its first interpretations» : Society and State in China: XXXIX Scientific Conference / Institute of Oriental Studies RAS. - M.: Vost. Lit., 2009. - 502 p. - Scientific notes of the department of China IV RAS. Vol. 1. P. 274-295.

China is one of the oldest states on Earth - survived in its long-term history of periods of consolidation, centralization, expansion to the external limits and expansion of their possessions and periods of desolidation, decentralization, decay of the empire into separate, often warring principalities, periods in which the influence of Chinese culture The neighboring peoples fell. In China's history, you can allocate a long period. independent, autonomous and even closed from the outside world of developmentWhen the country has developed on its own basis, at the same time taking all the reasonable innovations of the neighbors, which were not so much. During this period, the political system of China was a typical eastern despoty, a hierarchical empire, which included diverse territories and people, and political culture had a clearly pronounced sentence with the traditions of honoring power and general seniority, with the norms of the patriarchal family, a circular order in the peasant community and a paternalistic state .

Another important period of China's history, which can be called european influence period He began in the era of great geographical discoveries from the appearance of Portuguese ships in Chinese ports, the development of maritime trade and the foundation on the southeastern coast of Continental China Portuguese Colony of Aomyn. At first (XVI - XVIII centuries), the emperors of the Manchurian Dynasty Ming, which ruled by the country, seeing the destructive nature of the European influence on the feudal entry of the Minsk society and the state, on the strength of their power, in every way preventing the establishment of connections with Europeans. But in the XIX century. The efforts of the leading colonial powers of the UK, France, Russia, and then the United States, Germany, Japan, who, winning wars (for example, the first and second opium wars of the United Kingdom with China, the Franco-Chinese War, the Japanese War) and (or) imposing Trading, Markets, Squares (settlements of foreigners), the borders and naval bases, led not only to the transformation of the omnipotent of the Empire into a half-colony, but also to strengthen the European cultural influence, the development of industrial relations in it. Political process in the Chinese Empire half colonia mode Detected conflicts that can be divided into 1.confliers between the Chinese and foreigners and 2.Thisnricate conflicts.

But the most significant conflict at the time, which played an important role in the birth of democracy was conflict between European cultural influence and Chinese cultural tradition.

This conflict generated acceleration in economic development, changes in the social structure of society and the image of thought, innovation in public life and political culture. Representatives of the "Western" direction of thought, progressive government officials put forward the concept of "self-esteem by imitating foreigners", that is, borrowing from the most developed nations technical achievements For the construction of ships and the production of guns, re-commitment of the army and fleet to strengthen the internal political position of the empire and prevent its partition. At the same time, they categorically objected to borrowing Western political ideas. At the initiative of "imitators to foreigners" in 1870-1880. Translations for Chinese European textbooks and books in mathematics, technician, shipbuilding, geography, economics began. Children of officials and landowners began to send for education abroad. Weight this very reminded the processes that took place in Russia during Peter I.

Transformation of the Western flow of thought in political movement for reform It happened after the next defeat of the empire this time in the war with Japan 1894-1895, which caused the loss of Taiwan and payment (already once) huge contributions. Immediately after receiving news about the conditions of the Japanese-Chinese, the so-called Simonoskin agreement, representatives of the liberal community were in Beijing a collective memorandum by the Manchurian court in Beijing, in which the inability of the political regime was condemned to confuse Japanese aggression, contained a call to continue the war and carrying out urgent reforms in the field of economics, culture, Political governance, military affairs, which should not only strengthen the international position of the country, but also prevent inner gravestics and rebellion of Taipinov's rebellion. The main political requirement was introduction of the Constitution and the establishment of parliament ..

At the platform of this Memorandum in August 1895, the Association of Strengthening State, which became a political club of supporters of liberal reforms on the one hand, on the other hand, on the other hand, headquarters movement of liberal constitutionalists. Immediately in Shanghai and Nanjing, branches of the Association opened, and one of the leaders liberal reformers Kan-Yeva began to produce a newspaper, who took the liberal patriotic position against the affected sentiment, against the country's section, for the transformation of the Chinese state and society in the European Spirit. The imperial government has already closed the newspaper and the Association in December 1985, but its business as the first liberal protoparty in China continued other unions, societies and clubs created on the liberal-patriotic platform of the Memorandum. In the same period there was a significant amount of newspapers and magazines of the liberal-reforming direction. Another famous liberal reformer was Lianch Qicho, who distinguished the "bloody and destructive" for his own culture and "bloodless" progress options. The exemplary state of modernization for Liang Qição was Japan, which preserved the imperial board and many norms of traditional culture, but adopted by the Constitution, parliamentarism and political parties, conducted reforms in various fields: from education and land use to the military industry and the armed forces.

Liberal reformers opposed conservative groupingsmilitary, landowners, officials, the boredrals who tried to preserve the status quo, and if they exercise any reforms, then subject to the preservation of the political system of the empire and under the guidance of the ruling dynasty. It should be noted that in the ranks of the Imperial Camarilla there was no agreement on the issue of reforms. If the Emperor Gasyuy listened to the liberals, then the All-powerful Empress Tsyshi served as the center of attraction of conservatives, which were interested in tightening long-standing reforms. After the death of Guasyu and Chizyi, the emperor became (1908) a three-year PU and, and his regent is his father Prince Chun, who became the leader of the court conservative Camarilla. The leader is different nationalonservative Groupings representing not the Mangzhurian Qing Dynasty, and the Han Elert became General Yuan Shikai, the son of a major official.

Another direction of the liberal-democratic movement was represented by the Union of Renaissance of China, which united the representatives of the South Intelligentsia, most advanced in the capitalist development of the country's provinces. Unlike liberal reformers, revolutionary Democrats Painted the first target armed overthrow of the Mangchurian monarchy and the establishment of the Democratic Republic. Therefore, the Union of Renaissance China was created abroad, in Honolulu (Hawaiian Islands) during 1894-1895. The leader and the chief ideolog of the Union of Renaissance from its very creation was Sun Yatsen. His political program was based on "three folk principles":

• 1 .nationalism, Meaning that the priority is the overthrow of the Manchurian (Qing) dynasty and the return of the government of the National (Han) government, which in relations with foreign campaigns and governments should defend national interests;
• 2. democracy, meant that after the overthrow of the Qing monarchy should establish a democratic republic;
• 3. folk welfare That is, a fair decision of an agrarian question by nationalizing the Earth and establishing equal rights of all working on it.

These political forces that have not yet formed in political parties: Liberal Constitutionalalests, National Conservatives and National-Democrats and confronted the imperial regime in the Xinhai Revolution, which canceled the imperial system of government, the bill of time to the reign of Godhals (Manchurian emperors) and introduced republican form of government (1912). The government compiled from representatives of liberal-constitutionalists and revolutionary democrats was headed by Sun Yatsen, and a temporary president was elected Yuan Shikai.

In 1912, the rightest, conservative reformists, configured liberals and democrats are combined in Republican Party (RP at Gonghadan), Opided the population of Northern China.

More left, revolutionary reformators Customized Democrats and Republicans in the same year under the leadership of Sun Yatsene formed National Party (NP in Homindan) The program of which, relied on the "three folk principles", but in it, compared with the program of the Union of Renaissance, estimates of the actions of colonial powers in relation to China were mitigated. Homindan relied on the population of more developed southern and southeastern provinces.

At the end of 1912 was adopted the first constitution of China (Total 56 articles), which introduced the republican political system with the presidential form of government. President was elected by Parliament for 4 years. He was considered the head of the executive authority, the commander-in-chief of the army, had the right to publish decrees, the appointment of civil and military officials. Parliament - the National Assembly consisted of chambers of Representatives and senataelected by provincial parliaments. The Cabinet of Ministers was appointed with the consent of the National Assembly and was accountable to him. The constitution contained the first in China's history declaration of citizens' rights (Art. 5-15), secured civil equality "Without the difference in tribes, classes and religion", the inviolability of the individual and property, freedom of speech, petitions and assembly. It was proclaimed universal suffrage.

However, the democratic political system in China was only proclaimed, but did not actually function, except for the parliamentary elections in December 1912, at which a convincing victory won the National Sun-Yatsen Party, who gained 90% of the vote.

In 1913, the civil war began between government troops under the leadership of President Yuan Shiki and the revolutionary forces under the leadership of Prime Minister Sun Yatsen. Yuan Shikai believed that the revolution reached its goal and now the main task of the government to take an anarchy and establish a peaceful life. Sun Yatsene performed for the continuation of revolutionary transformations. Civil War Completed by the defeat of the Homintan. Sun Yatsen was forced to emigrate.

Yuan Shikai banned Homindan. Was accepted new edition, Constitution (1914), according to which the president received a lot of great powers and the right to be elected for 10 years, and the National Assembly became one-palate. If, according to the Constitution of 1912, China was the presidential republic, then in accordance with the new version of the Constitution, he became unambiguously presidential republic. But this NA was the Democratic Republic. A significant part of the deputies of the National Assembly appointed by the president himself. The elections were actually not carried out, and the "president" yuan Shikai hatched the plans for the revival of the Empire, giving her daughter to marry the deployed emperor PU I. However, death (1916) prevented him with his plans. Vice-President Yuanhun, who took the presidency of the presidency, announced the resumption of the Constitution of 1912. Emigrants returned to the country, including Sun Yatsen. The power of the central government has even weakened. In the provinces, the leaders actually moved to the commander of the hired provincial armies - Duju. Duan Zijui became the new prime minister. It was he who, with the support of Duzzyune, insisted on China's entry into the war on the side of the Entente (August 14, 1917).

In the peak of the Beijing Government in Guangzhou, another government was created under the chairmanship of Sun Yatsen, who did not recognize the Beijing Cabinet, put his task to establish the Constitution of the five authorities in China (legislative, executive and judicial, both in the West and another examination and control, as traditionally developed in China) and implement a program from the three principles of G Ohomintang.

In the conditions of the powerlessness of the central authorities and the external pressure of foreign powers in China, there was a kind dujunat regime,who had deep historical roots. Quite often, in the history of China, in the weakening of the central government, the neighboring provinces were combined into groupings that defended common interests. The most influential during the First World War was the Baiank Group (Northern Provinces), in turn, who was divided into Fantian (Manchi), Zhiliic and Anhuaean groupings. The premier Duan Zijuy was restored on Baians. In the southwest, Yunnan and Guansean Grouping were developed, which President Yuanhun was relying. Foreign powers also used these groupings to promote their own interests. So, for example, Japan financed Fantyan and Anhui, the United Kingdom - the Zhili group. Duzyunat regime was established because he allowed the regions on the one hand to support the weakened central authorities, on the other - to lobby their own interests, with the third stabilize the entire political system.

• , 9th - see Isaev B.A. Parthology. Part II. Party and political systems of leading countries of the world. St. Petersburg., 2007, p.240-245.

"Chinese Democracy" is a parable in the towns, the main long-lasting modern rock music. The story with the recording of this disk, which lasted 15 years, turned the Guns N "Roses from the most influential composition of the early 1990s in a natural mixture and a favorite object of attacks of the press. Nevertheless, Axel Rose and the company found the strength and desire to finish the album. Candle game?

15 years - the term is very solid. During this time, we managed to grow a whole generation for which Guns N "Roses - an empty sound. But the rock and roll remembers the cases and faster. For example, the leader The Beach Boys Brian Wilson began writing his epochal plate" smile "back in 1966 , and graduated from in 2004.

Yes, and "Hanza", do not say that, differ in meature. "Chinese Democracy" is formally considered the sixth album of the group, and in fact - only the third, where a really new original material is presented. Two others - the debut of 1987 "Appetite for Destruction" and the Twin "Use Your Illusion" of 1991, witty to one day as two independent album "Use Your Illusion I" and "Use Your Illusion II". "GN" R Lies "consisted of two previously published minions, and" The Speaghetti Incident? "- and at all a collection of crashes. The year of his exit, 1993, and can be considered the beginning of the epic under the code name" Chinese democracy ", since it is in That period Axel Rose wrote the first song for the album - "This I Love".

The first studio sessions were held in 1994, and after two years, all members of the classic Guns N "Roses - leader-guitarist Slash, bassist Duff McCagan and Drummer Matt Sarum (who came to the group to replace Steve Adler). In Time the musicians called their vocalist NOT otherwise as a dictator and obviously did not want to dance under his duff.

Since then, the case of the composition did not stop, it seems nor for a second: among others in Guns N "Roses managed to play Robin Fink from Nine Inch Nails, Brian Mantia from Primus, Tommy Stinson from The Replacements, Richard Fortus and Frank Ferrer from The Psychedelic Furs and Love Spit Love, Chris Pitman from Replicants, as well as an extravagant guitarist named Buckethead, invariably speaking in a mask and with a bucket from popcorn on the head. Only Axel Rose remained unshakable.

Since 1999, the future album has been officially referred to as "Chinese Democracy", and most of the songs have already been written to him. It must be assumed that initially Rose planned to release a record in 2001, since then the Guns N "Roses went to the first (and not last) tour of its support. But the perfectionism of the group leader, a systematic rewriting tracks in search of the ideal, once again postponed release. The response of colleagues was the most diverse: someone knowingly kival, someone frankly mocked. So, the offspring group once stated that it was tired of waiting for the release of "Chinese democracy" and takes it the name to itself (their version sounded like "Chinese Democrazy (You Snooze, You Lose) "- Something like" Chinese demoshumashochi "(she slept and lost)). Later, however, Offspring announced that it was a primary joke, and the album was called" Splinter ".

With the arrival of the Internet era, fans have the opportunity to observe the intermediate results of the work of "Ganzes" in real time. The first leakage happened in September 2003, when the "I.R.S." was performed on the radio program of DJ Eddi Trank. In February 2006, a renewed version of this song with another three - "Better", "Catcher in The Rye" and "There Was a Time" - was published on the fan site Guns N "Roses." IRS "again hit the radio , and in rather tough rotation, which allowed the composition to even get into the sum of radio broadcasts in the United States. After a year, the updated "Better" was leaked in the Internet, another month - the track "Madagascar". May 2007 brought four more songs to the network - The next readings "There Was a Time" and "IRS", as well as "The Blues" (later became referred to as "Street of Dreams") and "Chinese Democracy".

Cover album "chinese democracy"

The most large-scale leakage occurred in mid-2008, when rumors about the imminent and inevitable exit of the album that stuffed by the Oskomina reached the critical mark. June 19 Former employee of Universal Kevin Kogille posted on his blog antiquiet.com Nine of 14 songs of the future album: already known "Better", "Chinese Democracy", "Irs", "Madagascar", "The Blues", "There Was A Time "and novelties" RIAD N "The Bedouins", "Prostutete", "If the World". From where he had songs, it is still unknown. Crogill refused to call the source of leakage even after arresting and charges the accusations of the FBI agents. By the last According to the data, the crimson went on a deal with a consequence, recognizing his guilt and thus fed to him the period of five years in prison until a year conditionally.

Another "victim of" Guns N "Roses became Dr. Pepper, who promised to each American for a free jar of a carbonated drink if Axel Rose will release a" Chinese democracy "until the end of 2008. It is possible that it became the last argument in favor of The release scheduled for November 23. Dr. Pepper, by the way, kept his promise, so if you are a US citizen running to the company's website.

As it should be in the world of modern show business, shortly before the hour of the X, on November 19, the album "pressed" in the Internet entirely, and the next day was presented on the Guns N "Roses on the Myspace network. Here the truth is the moment. . During the day, the album listened more than three million times (record for MySpace), after which bloggers (and your humble servant including) began to scratch the backlogs, because the long-suffering creation of Rosees were obviously better than he thought about him.

Chainse Democracy Album Tracklist 1. Chinese Democracy
2. Shackler "S Revenge
3. Better.
4. Street of Dreams
5. If the world
6. There Was a Time
7. Catcher in the Rye
8. Scraped.
9. Riad N "The Bedouins
10. Sorry.
11. I.R.S.
12. Madagascar
13. THIS I LOVE
14. Prostitute.

"Chinese democracies", of course, before bunting old-fashioned sound, is the same old-kind hard rock with a piano and string characteristic of the rose, but also with the injections of the metal and Industrial. It seems that in the 2000s so to play it is simply no one knows how. Or does not want.

And this is never a great album, but, damn, all the advances issued to him he is more than paying for him, as well as withstands all criticism in his address.

"Chinese democracies" may be resected, too patheosna and too epic, but it is exactly what "ganzov" the public in his time and loved and what is the right to expect from them now. Well, no matter how much a heavy man in life was Axel Rose, his writing talent has not yet canceled. At least several excellent tracks (despite the fact that the rest are just good) on the album you will find. First of all, this, of course, "Catcher in the Rye" (a kind of apotheosis of the record), which is wonderful and without the original Solo Brian Maja from Queen attendedly. It is impossible to pass by and "If the World", which sounds like if Axel Rose lent at Mike Pattone Musicians Faith No More. The capital composition, melancholic and slightly similar to Bowie final "Prostitute" are rapidly. Also in the offset go "Better", "There Was a Time", "Madagascar" and "This I Love". Looks like excellent songs on the album even more than just good.

By the way, all the former members of the Guns N "Roses, which is even strange, reacted very positively to the" Chinese Democracy "exit. Togo and look, reunite in the original composition and give heat as in the old days.

And so this disc is great for the role of the official start of the upcoming era of nostalgia on the 90s - times where the Axel comes from. So, good morning, the last hero. Not the most prolific, but quite funny.