The emergence of the first universities. Medieval universities
To this educational institution, the first in Western Europe was issued by Charter from Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, by that time for 70 years at the university, the students studied the course of theology and civil law. The Charter gave the university right to implement his research and educational programs Regardless of either from church, nor from secular power. From this time, the program of grammar, logic and rhetoric was included in the program. The University in Bologna is the oldest educational institution that has implemented an academic degree represented and represented by its graduates. Currently, it is the second largest from Italian universities. Today, about 100 thousand students are trained at its 23 faculties.
Other oldest universities in Europe
In 1222, former teachers and students of the University of Bologna, conflicted with his leadership, in another Italian city - Padua, a new educational institution was founded with a university program and level of education. This university had two branches, on one students studied theology, civil and canonical law, on the other - medicine, rhetoric, philosophy, dialectics, grammar, astronomy and medicine.In the English-speaking world, Oxfordsky, a year of its foundation - 1117 is recognized in the oldest university. Initially, the Teosophical education of the English clergy received the theosophical education in his walls, but since the XIII century it began to study the highest one. Currently, students-humanitarians, mathematicians, physicists, sociologists, physicians, botany, eologists, etc. are being prepared in this educational institution.
Another oldest European University is French Sorbonnery, founded in 1215. At first it was an association of church colleges, but since 1255, in this institution, young people from a poor families have received the right to learn theology. From the XVI century, the University of Sorbonnery is considered the center of European philosophical thought.
Report
The history of the development of the first universities
Middle Ages knew three types of schools. Lower schools formed at churches and monasteries were aimed at prepare elementary literate spiritual people - clerics. The main attention was paid to them for the study of the Latin language (on which the Catholic worship), the prayers and the very order of worship. In high school, which occurred most often in Episcopian departments, practiced the study of seven "free arts" (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, or logic, arithmetic, geometry, which included geography, astronomy and music). The first three sciences were the so-called trivium, the last four - quadrivium. Later, the study of "free arts" began to be made in the highest school, where these disciplines constituted the content of teaching on the younger ("artistic") faculty. The Higher School was first called Studia Generalia (literally - general sciences), then this name was ousted by other universities.
The first universities arose in the XII century - part of the Episcopal schools that had the largest professors in the field of theology and philosophy, part of the associations of private teachers - philosophy specialists, law (Roman law) and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is considered to be the University of Paris, which existed as the "free Skoda" in the first half of the XII and at the beginning of the XIII century (the constituent letter of Philip II August 1200 about the rights of sorbonna). The role of university centers, however, in the XI century began to play Italian higher Schools - Bologna legal, specializing in Roman law, and Salern medical school. The most typical University of Paris, whose charter was the basis of other universities in Europe, consisted of four faculties: artistic, medical, legal and theological (including the teaching of philosophy in church lighting).
Other most old universities in Europe were Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanksky in Spain and Neapolitan in Italy, based in the XIII century. In the XIV century universities were founded in the cities of Prague, Krakow, Heidelberg. In the XV century, the number quickly increased them. In 1500, 65 universities were already in all of Europe.
Teaching in medieval universities was conducted in Latin. The main method of university teaching was lectures of professors. The common form of scientific communication was also disputes, or public disputes that arranged periodically on the themes of theological and philosophical nature. The disputes took part in the mainly professor of universities. But the disputes were also suitable for scholars (Scholaras - students, from the word Schola - school).
In the total mass of medieval universities, the so-called "maternal" is allocated. These are Universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Salamanca. According to some researchers, it was a kind of Torchoronians and the rest of the universities only imitated them. Particularly imitated to the Paris University, who even nicknamed in the Middle Ages "Sinai Schools". Thus, the expression "Matern Universities" has two meanings:
These were the first universities in time;
For new educational institutions, after proclaiming, their universities automatically switched to maternity rights and privileges.
According to individual researchers, "the earliest university medieval Europe"Was Salernsky. He developed on the basis of the ancient Salernian medical school, the first mention of which refers to 197 BC. er During the existence of the Roman Empire, the small town of Salern in the depths of the Pestan Gulf in the campaign was peculiar to the resort. In 9V. He was The capital of the Langobard kingdom, and from the 11th century became the residence of the Norman Duke of Robert Guichucar. The Hippocratian community (Civitas Hippocratica) existing here kept and developed the best of the ancient medical heritage. It was here in 820 a hospital was founded - the first civilian hospital in Western Europe Funded at the expense of the city. Salersk medical school as one of the largest centers of education was known until 1812. However, she still did not. First, because besides the medicine of the same high level Education for the rest of the disciplines did not give. Secondly, the widespread from the beginning of the 13th century Arabic medicine, new ideas, medicines created on the basis of the idea of \u200b\u200bchemical impact on the body, a mixture of knowledge and conspiracy struck the imagination of Europe. The ideas of a healthy lifestyle, physical impact on the body of Galen and Hippocratic were pushed out at universities in the background. The Salernskaya school retained blind dedication to antique doctors. Students began to scatter. An example of the products of Salern Medikov became written in the 13th century by the famous doctor, poet and heretic Arnold from Villanov "Salern Code of Health", which came out with us by several publications.
For these reasons, the Bologna University arose on the basis of the Bologna law school has traditionally been considered the first European university. The year of its foundation is called 1088 year. The founder is considered the famous lawyer of the time Irnery, who first became the Roman law in a wide audience. It was of fundamental importance for the then Europe, where the new type of city is widely distributed - feudal. Trade and crafts needed a legal substantiation of their existence. It is the Roman law that is universal and already in this sense was suitable for integrating Christian Europe. It developed a trade and real law, the concept of private ownership is clearly formulated, that is, it was precisely such a legal system that corresponded to the folding trade economy. In the "revival of" Roman law and the use of it for justification and the protection of their political claims, and royal authorities were interested, especially during its strengthening. Lectures of Irneuria were very popular and students began to be fluffed from all europa.
But the authentic increase in the values \u200b\u200bof the Bologna school begins with the middle of the 12th century. In 1158, the German Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa captured one of their richest cities of Lombardy Milan and convened on the Ronkalian field (on the river, between the Piacency and the Parma) of the Seimas in order to impose Seiman new order Control. In grateful to help from Bologna professors in the same year, he issued a law on which:
he took under his patronage of those who "traveling for scientific classes, especially teachers of the Divine and Holy Law";
bologna Scholars were released from a circular place in the payment of taxes and from the subordination to the city courts of Bologna.
These privileges strengthened the influx of listeners. According to the evidence of contemporaries by the beginning of the 13th century in Bologna, up to 10 thousand people were studied from all over Europe. The famous Bologna professor Azo seemed so many listeners that had to lecture on the square. Almost all languages \u200b\u200bof Europe were presented here. The school began to be called General. It was in Bologna for the first time that the so-called nations (ectery) began to appear.
Another type of association is represented by the University of Paris. Here the union began not to schoolary, but teachers. But these were not simple teachers, but students of senior faculties, have time to finish preparatory faculty. They were simultaneously masters of seven loose arts and students. Naturally, they began to oppose themselves to other teachers, Scholars - preparations and citizens, demand the definition of their status. The new university developed rapidly, unification with other faculties occurred gradually. The power of the university has grown in a fierce fight against spiritual and secular authorities. The foundation of the university dates 1200, when the Decree of the French King and Bull Pope Innokentia III, who freed the university from the subordination of secular power. The autonomy of the university was fixed by Bullah Dad 1209, 1212, 1231 years.
In the 13th century, Oxford University arises. Like the University of Paris, he arises after the mass of conflicts with the city and church authorities. After one of these clashes in 1209, students in protest went to Cambridge and there new University. These two universities are so closely connected with each other, which is often combined under the general name "Oxbridge". The theological problems were presented to a lesser extent, but much more attention was paid to natural sciences. The feature of Oxbridge is the presence of so-called colleges (from the word "board"), where students not only studied, but also lived. Education in hostels led to the emergence of such a phenomenon of a decentralized university.
Pride of Spain is a university in Salamanca (1227). On the basis of it, it was finally announced in the diploma of the King Alfons X in 1243. In the XIII century, the mass of other universities arises:
1220g. - University in Montpellier (the university privileges received, however, only at the end of the 13th century).
1222g. - Paduan (as a result of Scholyar's care from Bologna).
1224g. - Neapolitan, since the Sicilian King Friedrich II needed experienced administrators.
1229 -Relans, Toulouse (local authorities seduced Scholyarov in that it is possible to listen to forbidden Aristotle and rely on stable prices for wine and food).
Many universities appeared in 14-15 centuries:
1347 - Prague.
1364 - Krakowsky.
1365g. - Viennese.
1386 - Heidelberg.
1409g. - Leipzig.
By 1500, there were already 80 universities in Europe, the number of which was the most different. In the Paris University in the middle of the 14th century there were about three thousand people, in Prague, by the end of the 14th century - 4 thousand, in Krakow - 904 people.
n1.DOC.
Introduction .................................................................................... ... 3
Chapter 1. The first European universities .......................................... 5
Chapter 2. The first universities in Russia ................................................12
Conclusion ................................................................................................16Appendix ................................................................................. 17.
List of used literature ...................................................19Introduction
Universities (from Lat. Universitas - a totality, generality), higher educational institutions, leading training for specialists in a totality of disciplines that make up the foundation scientific knowledge. The history of universities begins with the era of the Western European Middle Ages and is associated with the growth of medieval cities, the needs of the developed urban economy and culture. Previously, the total (11th century) medieval higher (secular) schools appeared in Italy - Bologna legal, in 1158 received the status of the university, the highest medical in Salerno. At the end of 12-13 centuries. There were universities.: Parisian (1215) and in Monnel (1289, France), Cambridge (1209) and Oxford (England), Salamanksky (Spain), Lisabonsky (1290, Portugal); at the 14th century Central Europe - Prague (Karlov University, 1348, Czech Republic), Krakowsky (1364, Poland), Vienna (1365, Austria), Heidelbergsky (1386, Germany); at 15 in. In Northern Europe - Uppsalsky (1477, Sweden), Copenhagen (1479, Denmark).
The history of the first universities is closely connected with the work of thinkers who gave a new impetus to the development of culture, science and enlightenment, R. Bekon, Ya. Gus, A. Dante, J. Winkley, N. Copernicus, F. Petrarca.
The first universities were very mobile, since their essential feature was, to a certain extent, proper and democratic character. In the event of a threat of an epidemic or war, the university could move to another city or even the country. And international students and teachers united into national fraud (nation, college). For example, in the University of Paris, there were 4 membranes: French, Picardia, English and German, and in Bologna University - 17.
In the second half of the XIII century, faculties or colleges appeared in universities. Faculties awarded scientific degrees - first bachelor (after 3-7 years of successful study under the direction of the professor), and then a master's, doctor or licrateant. Farms and faculties determined the lives of the first universities and jointly chose the official chapter of the University of the Department. The rector possessed temporary authority, as a rule, the last one year. The actual power at the university belonged to faculties and earthquakes. However, this state of affairs has changed by the end of the XV century. Faculties and earthland have lost their own influence, and the main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities.
The very first universities had only a few faculties, but their specialization was constantly deepened. For example, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, Oxford - Canonical Law, Orleans - Civil Law, Universities of Italy - Roman Law, Universities of Spain - Mathematics and Natural Sciences.
This paper raises the purpose of considering the history of the first universities.
Chapter 1. First European Universities
Some authors believe that the dissemination of universities in medieval Europe has been associated with the reconquality in Spain, as a result of which the Arab universities were in the territory of Christian states, as well as the conquests of the Europeans of the Arab Sicily and the camps of the Crusaders to the East, where they acquainted both from Arab and with Byzantine culture. Early Universities of Western Europe enjoyed the patronage catholic church And they had the status of schools at the Cathedrals (as the University of Paris) or Studium Generale (General Schools). Later, universities created kings (Prague and Krakow Universities) and municipal administrations (universities in Cologne and Erfurt). At the first stage (3-4 years), learning was mastered seven "Free Arts" : Grammar, rhetoric and logic (so-called trivium), arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy (quadrivium).
The first Orthodox higher education institution in Eastern Europe became Kiev - Mogilyan Academy The date of the foundation of which is considered to be 1615. In China, an educational institution similar to the university is considered Academy Hanlin , Opened in the VIII century.
By the XVIII century, universities published their own scientific journals. Two basic university models have been developed: German and French. German model is based on ideas Wilhelm Humboldt and Friedrich Schleiermara ; University supports academic freedom Laboratories and organizes seminars. In French universities, tough discipline dominates, the administration controls all aspects of activities. Until the XIX century In European universities, religion was the most important part of classes, but during the XIX century. Her role gradually decreased. Universities were concentrated on scientific research, and a German model, better adapted to classes with science, with time gained more distribution throughout the world than French. At the same time higher education It became more and more accessible to the wide masses of the population.
The first universities arising in the XII century are part of the Episcopal schools who have the largest professors in the field of theology and philosophy, part of the associations of private teachers - philosophy specialists, law (Roman law) and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is considered to be the University of Paris, which existed as the "free Skoda" in the first half of the XII and at the beginning of the XIII century (the constituent letter of Philip II August 1200 about the rights of sorbonna). The role of university centers, however, in the XI century, the Italian Higher Schools began to play - the Bologna legal, specializing in the Roman law, and the Salern Medical School. The most typical University of Paris, whose charter was the basis of other universities in Europe, consisted of four faculties: artistic, medical, legal and theological (including the teaching of philosophy in church lighting).
Other most old universities in Europe were Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanksky in Spain and Neapolitan in Italy, based in the XIII century. In the XIV century universities were founded in the cities of Prague, Krakow, Heidelberg. In the XV century, the number quickly increased them. In 1500, 65 universities were already in all of Europe.
Teaching in medieval universities was conducted in Latin. The main method of university teaching was lectures of professors. The common form of scientific communication was also disputes, or public disputes that arranged periodically on the themes of theological and philosophical nature. The disputes took part in the mainly professor of universities. But the disputes were also suitable for scholars (Scholaras - students, from the word Schola - school).
In the total mass of medieval universities, the so-called "maternal" is allocated. These are Universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Salamanca. According to some researchers, it was a kind of Torchoronians and the rest of the universities only imitated them. Particularly imitated to the Paris University, who even nicknamed in the Middle Ages "Sinai Schools". Thus, the expression "Matern Universities" has two meanings:
These were the first universities in time;
For new educational institutions, after proclaiming, their universities automatically switched to maternity rights and privileges.
According to individual researchers, the "Early University of Medieval Europe" was Salern. He developed on the basis of the ancient Salernian medical school, the first mention of which refers to 197 to N. e. During the existence of the Roman Empire, the small town of Salern in the depths of the Pestranian Bay in the campaign was peculiar to the resort. In 9V. He was the capital of the Langobard Kingdom, and from the 11th century he became the residence of the Norman Duke Robert Guichucar. The "Hippocratian community" existing here (Civitas HipPocratica) kept and developed the best of the ancient medical heritage. It was here that in 820 the hospital was founded - the first civilian hospital in Western Europe, financed at the expense of the city. The Salern Medical School as one of the largest centers of education was known until 1812. However, she still did not become a university. First, because besides the medicine of the same high level of education, the rest of the disciplines did not give. Secondly, the widespread from the beginning of the 13th century Arabic medicine, new ideas, medicines created on the basis of the idea of \u200b\u200bchemical impact on the body, a mixture of knowledge and conspiracy struck the imagination of Europe. The ideas of a healthy lifestyle, physical impact on the body of Galen and Hippocratic were pushed out at universities in the background. The Salernskaya school retained blind dedication to antique doctors. Students began to scatter. An example of the products of Salern Medikov became written in the 13th century by the famous doctor, poet and heretic Arnold from Villanov "Salern Code of Health", which came out with us by several publications.
For these reasons, the Bologna University arose on the basis of the Bologna law school has traditionally been considered the first European university. The year of its foundation is called 1088 year. Two founder is the famous lawyer of the time of time Irnery, who first became the first to read Roman law in a wide audience. It was of fundamental importance for the then Europe, where the new type of city is widely distributed - feudal. Trade and crafts needed a legal substantiation of their existence. It is the Roman law that is universal and already in this sense was suitable for integrating Christian Europe. It developed a trade and real law, the concept of private ownership is clearly formulated, that is, it was precisely such a legal system that corresponded to the folding trade economy. In the "revival of" Roman law and the use of it for justification and the protection of their political claims, and royal authorities were interested, especially during its strengthening. Lectures of Irneuria were very popular and students began to be fluffed from all europa.
But the authentic increase in the values \u200b\u200bof the Bologna school begins with the middle of the 12th century. In 1158, the German Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa seized one of their richest cities of Lombardy, Milan and convened on the Ronkalian field (on the river, between Piacense and the Parma) of the Seimas to impose a new order of management in the direction of North-Thalian cities. In grateful to help from Bologna professors in the same year, he issued a law on which:
he took under his patronage of those who "traveling for scientific classes, especially teachers of the Divine and Holy Law";
bologna Scholars were released from a circular place in the payment of taxes and from the subordination to the city courts of Bologna.
Another type of association is represented by the University of Paris. Here the union began not to schoolary, but teachers. But these were not simple teachers, and students of senior faculties who have time to finish the preparatory faculty. They were simultaneously masters of seven loose arts and students. Naturally, they began to oppose themselves to other teachers, Scholars - preparations and citizens, demand the definition of their status. The new university developed rapidly, unification with other faculties occurred gradually. The power of the university has grown in a fierce fight against spiritual and secular authorities. The foundation of the university dates 1200, when the Decree of the French King and Bull Pope Innokentia III, who freed the university from the subordination of secular power. The autonomy of the university was fixed by Bullah Dad 1209, 1212, 1231 years.
In the 13th century, Oxford University arises. 3 Like the University of Paris, it arises after the mass of conflicts with the city and church authorities. After one of these clashes in 1209, students in protest went to Cambridge and there was a new university there. These two universities are so closely connected with each other, which is often combined under the general name "Oxbridge". The theological problems were presented to a lesser extent, but much more attention was paid to natural sciences. The feature of Oxbridge is the presence of so-called colleges (from the word "board"), where students not only studied, but also lived. Education in hostels led to the emergence of such a phenomenon of a decentralized university.
Pride of Spain is a university in Salamanca (1227). On the basis of it, it was finally announced in the diploma of the King Alfons X in 1243. 4 In the XIII century, the mass of other universities arises:
1220g. - University in Montpellier (the university privileges received, however, only at the end of the 13th century).
1222g. - Paduan (as a result of Scholyar's care from Bologna).
1224g. - Neapolitan, since the Sicilian King Friedrich II needed experienced administrators.
1229 -Relans, Toulouse (local authorities seduced Scholyarov in that it is possible to listen to forbidden Aristotle and rely on stable prices for wine and food).
Many universities appeared in 14-15 centuries:
1347 - Prague.
1364 - Krakowsky.
1365g. - Viennese.
1386 - Heidelberg.
1409g. - Leipzig.
By 1500, there were already 80 universities in Europe, the number of which was the most different. In the Paris University in the middle of the 14th century there were about three thousand people, in Prague, by the end of the 14th century - 4 thousand, in Krakow - 904 people.
Chapter 2. The first universities in Russia
A.S. Pushkin called the First Russian University of Lomonosov. Partly this statement, of course, right, although if we are dealing with real lifeAnd not with metaphors, the history of higher education in our country looks somewhat differently.The first to create a university in Russia tried Boris Godunov, who in 1600 sent John Kramer to Germany - the latter was to bring professors to Moscow, but the idea failed, since the clergy resolutely increased in such innovations. Lhadmitry I, having entered the capital, also voiced his plans for the creation of the university, but did not have time to implement them. Until the 17th century, higher education in Russia could only be obtained in the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, open in Moscow in 1685, but it was not a secular institution. five
January 1724 can be considered the starting date of genuine history of the university system, when the Senate adopted a decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences with the University and Gymnasium in St. Petersburg. 6.
This initiative belonged to Peter I, which was so imagined by the work of this brainchild: academics not only do scientific activitiesBut also taught at the university, and graduates of the gymnasium become students. Since there were no personnel in Russia at that time, teachers were invited from abroad. Very few agreed to go to a cold and unfamiliar country, but already under Catherine I, seventeen future academics profits in St. Petersburg. Another problem was that there were no young people who are ready to listen to lectures at the university, because for this required knowledge of Latin and others foreign languagesbecause the teaching staff did not own Russian. Then they decided to write out young people from Europe, who were sent there to learn in Peter - they scored eight people.
In Russia, the history of university education dates back to 1725, when was established Academic University (at the Academy of Sciences); In 1766, he actually closed "for the lack of listeners." 7.
In general, the problem of the number of students in the Academic University has always stood very sharply. There were quite a few reasons for this, among them you can call the weakness of secondary education in Russia of the time, and the unwillingness of the nobles to give their children to the university, since the military career was more prestigious. However, there were many talented students who actively engaged in scientific activities. For some time, the rector of the university was Lomonosov, who sought to open his doors to representatives of all classes, including peasants, as well as to give an educational institution the right to assign scientific degrees, but these projects failed to implement. Some time after the death of a scientist, the university and the gymnasium were merged into the school of the Academy, which existed until the beginning of the 19th century. The second birth of the university occurred in 1819.
In April 1755, the plan of M. V. Lomonosov was the grand opening of Moscow University, who largely owes its birth already mentioned Lomonosov and Shuvalov. For him, the building of the former chief pharmacy had a Voskresensky gate, at the place of the present historical museum. Only at the end of the 18th century, a building at the corner of Big Nikitskaya and Mokhovah, rebuilt after the fire of 1812, was built for Moscow University. eight
Decree on the creation of the university was signed by Empress Alexey Mikhailovich Argamakov (1711-1757) - 1st director. nine
Initially in this school there were three faculties - legal, medical and philosophical. They had to teach ten professors. In addition, two gymnasiums were established - for the nobles and allocates, future students were to learn in them - and the university court.
It was assumed that the professors, students and employees were obstacious to other authorities, and the university himself was subordinate directly to Senate. Professor should have been five days a week to read students lectures and perform every evening with free two-hour lectures on Latin. In the early years of the existence of Moscow University, the human problem was very acute: sometimes one professor was forced to read all the items at one faculty, which, of course, had a negative effect on the quality of education, so sometimes students were sent to study in St. Petersburg, where teachers were interested in their subjects. There were conflicts between foreign and Russian professors.
Young teachers of the university boldly violated the tradition characteristic of Western European universities, to teach in Latin. "There is no such thought, by whom it would be not possible in Russian," said Professor N.N. Popovsky, favorite student Lomonosov.
However, despite all the difficulties, the university became an increasingly influential center of the scientific and cultural life of Moscow. In 1756, decree of the empress of this higher establishment was allowed to have their printing house, a book shop and produce a newspaper, the first issue of which was published in the same year. The printed products of the university diverged throughout the country and, in the opinion of Kleevsky, became a help to form a public opinion in Russia. There were also many free communities that promoted the spread of science and discussing the political and social problems of that time.
In 1802-1805, Derptsky (now Tartusky), Kharkov and Kazan University are established. The home school of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian, which existed as a higher educational institution since 16 V was called the Vilen University. Universities satisfied the country's needs in educated officials, doctors, teachers, were educational, scientific and administrative (in 1804-35) centers of educational districts and carried out scientific and methodological guidance by all educational institutions County. In 1816, the University of Warsaw, in 1819 - St. Petersburg on the basis of the Chief Pedagogical Institute. Unlike West-European, in Russian universities, except for Derptsky and Warsaw, there were no theological faculties. Most noble children received education outside the university, in closed boarding houses and lyceums. The nobles scared the prospect of medical and pedagogical activity. The government, fearing too much the composition of the student, constantly sought to change its social composition, increase the number of students from the nobles. However, this did not give tangible results, and the increase in the number of students was due todivorces .
Conclusion
So, the emergence of universities was caused by the needs of the economic development of society, the growth of cities, the development of crafts and trade, climbing culture; This was also facilitated by the emergence of new philosophical currents in the Middle Ages, and then scholastics, who sought to reconcile the mind and faith, philosophy and religion and at the same time developing formal-logical thinking and so on. In contrast to secular universities, the church created church universities, seeking to preserve their influence on science and prepare the necessary clergy, lawyers and doctors.
Medieval universities at one time played a significant positive role. They contributed to the international communication of students and professors (professors and students could move from the University of one country to the University of other countries), contributed to the development of cities.
The history of the first universities is closely related to the work of thinkers who gave a new impetus to the development of culture, science and education.
Russia's development in the first half of the XVIII century, the need to master the achievements of European science caused the need for large quantities educated people
The establishment of the first universities was very important for Russia, not only because this experience was taken into account when creating other Russian universities, but also because they had formed the main features of the university system of our country.
Appendix No. 1.
Building of the Academy of Sciences
Appendix No. 2.
The building of Moscow University (left) at the Resurrection Goal on Red Square. Agramor. XIX century.
Appendix number 3.
University in Salamanca, founded in 1218
Appendix No. 4.
Moscow University in 1820
Appendix No. 5.
Oxford University. Based on W. floor. XII century
List of used literature
A. A. Vaskin, M.G. Goldstadt Moscow University on Mokhovah. - Moscow: Satellite +, 2004. - 69 p.
Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. Textbook for universities - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 304 p. - 104С.
Kopevich Yu. H. St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and Power in the XVIII century. // Science and Crisis: Historical Critical Essays / Red. Sost. E. I. Kolchinsky. St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2003.- 156 p.
Materials on the history of St. Petersburg University of XVIII V.: Review ARH. dock. St. Petersburg., 2001. E. M. Balashov.
3 See Appendix No. 5
5 A. A. Vaskin, M.G. Goldstadt Moscow University on Mokhovaya. - Moscow: Satellite +, 2004. - 39 p.
6 See Appendix 1
7 Copevich Yu. H. St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and Power in the XVIII century. // Science and Crisis: Historical Critical Essays / Red. Sost. E. I. Kolchinsky. St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2003, p. 122.
An important milestone in the development of science and education was the creation universities. Universities were born in the system of church schools. In the late XI - early XII centuries. Separate cats and monastic schools turn into large training centerswhich then become the first universities. That is how, for example, originated Paris University (1200), which rose from the sorbonna - theological school at Notre Dame - and joined medical and legal schools. Similarly, other European universities arose: in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), Lisbon (1290). Universities were established by secular power. The birth and law of the university was confirmed privileges - Special documents signed by Roman dads or the reignificant individuals. The privileges were secured by university autonomy (his own court, management, the right to give to scientists degrees, etc.), freed students from military service, etc. The network of universities has expanded quite quickly. If in the XIII century. In Europe, there were 19 universities, in the next century they were added to them 25 more. The growth of university education responded to the venue of time.
The emergence of the university contributed to the revival of public life, trade and income increase. That is why cities willingly agreed to the opening of universities. It is known, for example, that the authorities of the devastated war of Florence opened the university in 1348, thereby believing the fact. The opening of the university was negotiated by certain conditions. Sometimes the urban community prescribed a specific minimum of students and agreed to pay the work of the professor only in the presence of such a minimum.
The church sought to keep university education under its influence. The Vatican was the official patron saint of many universities. The main subject of universities was theology. The teachers almost completely served the immigrants from representatives of the spiritual title. The Order of Franciscans and Dominicans controlled a significant part of the Department. The church held at the universities of their representatives - chancers, which were in direct submission from the Archbishop. And, nevertheless, the universities of the early Middle Ages according to the program, organizations and methods of study played the role of a secular alternative to church education.
An important feature of universities was to a certain extent excessive, democratic character. So, on the benches of sorbonna men sat of different ages and classes from many countries. University has not required high costs. There were practically any premises. Instead of the bench, listeners could be located on straw. Students often chose professors from their environments. The order of recording to the university looked very free. Training was paid. Students of the poor were filmed for housing camork, interrupted by random earnings, lessons, bent, westrained. To the XIV century There was a special category of wandering students ( vagant, goliada) which were repeatedly moved from one university to another. Many Vagatants did not differ in morality and were genuine scourge for the townsdays. But from them a lot of devotees of science and education grew. The first universities were very mobile. If the surroundings began, war and other troubles, the university could play with a spaced place and move to another country or the city.
Students and teachers united into national indices (nation, college). So, in the University of Paris, there were 4 membranes: French, Picardia, English and German. In Bologna - and more - 17. Later, earthquakes (in the second half of the XIII century) appeared in universities faculties or colleges. They were called certain training units, as well as students of students and professors of these divisions. Farms and faculties determined the lives of the first universities. Representatives of nations ( procurators) and faculties ( deans) Communicately chose the official chapter of the University - Rector. The rector possessed temporary (usually per year) authority. In some universities, especially in the south of Europe, the duties of the rector performed a student. Initially, the actual power at the university belonged to nations. Then the position changes. The main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities, and the nation has lost their influence. Faculties awarded scientific degrees, the fact of the acquisition of which was evaluated in the spirit of apprenticeship and knightly education. Sometimes graduates, like knights, crowned loud titles like count of law. In a scientist master It is easy to guess the title of master who received a student of the artisan. Professors and students thought themselves in the relationships of masters and apprentices. When the young man was 13-14 years old, he was supposed to sign up at the professor, who was later considered for him in response. The student was engaged in Professor from 3 to 7 years old and, if he studied successfully, received a degree bachelor. Initially, it was considered only as a step to a scientific degree. The bachelor visited the lectures of other professors, helped to teach new students again, i.e. It became a kind of apprentice. As a result, like an artisan, he publicly expressed (showed) the scientific stycle, protecting it before the settlement members of the Faculty. After successful protection, the bachelor received a degree ( master, doctors, licrates).
Most of the first universities had several faculties. The learning content was determined by the program of seven free arts. So, at the Faculty of Arts, the writings of Aristotle in logic, physics, ethics, metaphysics, which were translated into the XII century, were mainly read. from Arabic and Greek languages. Specialization increased. Thus, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, Oxford - teaching of canonical law, Orleans - Civil Law Teaching, University in Montpellier (South France) - Medicine, Universities in Spain were distinguished by teaching mathematics and natural sciences, Universities in Italy - Teaching Roman Law.
From the student required to attend lectures: Required daytime (ordinary) and repeating evening. In the same hour, in the same room of Professor dictated excerpts from the writings of Latin authors. Students were recorded, translated and commented on these excerpts. Weekly there were disputes with the obligatory presence of students. The teacher (usually a master or license) appointed the topic of the dispute. His assistant - bachelor - led a discussion, i.e. I answered questions and commented on speeches. If necessary, Magista came Bachelor to help. After two times a year, the disputes of "about anything" (without a tightly specified topic) were arranged. In this case, sometimes discussed burning scientific and ideological problems. Participants of the disputes behaved very loosely, often interrupted by the speaker whistling and shouts.
Universities gradually rejected Scholastics, broken into "science of empty words". To the XIV century The abyss between the latest knowledge and scholasticism increased. Scholasticism has become increasingly transformed into a formal immaterial philosophy. Scientific styles of Scholastovs could, for example, discussions on themes: "How many devils are placed on the tip of the needle," "Why Adam in Paradise could not eat an apple, and not a pear," universities opposed scholasticity an active intellectual life. Thanks to them, the spiritual world of Europe has become much richer. The history of the first universities is closely connected with the work of thinkers who gave a new impetus to the development of culture, science and education.
The creation of universities has become an important milestone development of science and education. Universities were born in the system of church schools. At the end of the XI - early XII century. A number of cathedral and monastic schools in Europe turn into major training centers, which are then becoming the first universities. That is how, for example, the University of Paris (1200) arose, which grew out of the sorbonna - theological school at Notre Dame - and joined medical and legal schools. Similarly, other European universities arose: in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), Lisbon (1290).
The foundation and rights of the university were confirmed by the privileges - special documents signed by Roman dads or the reignificant individuals. The privileges were fixed by university autonomy (its own court, management, the right to give to scientists degrees, etc.), liberated students from military service, etc.
The network of universities has expanded quite quickly. If in the XIII century. In Europe, there were 19 universities in Europe, in the next century they were added to them 25. The growth of university education responded to the time of time. The emergence of the university contributed to the revival of public life, trade and income increase. That is why cities willingly agreed to the opening of universities.
The opening of the university was counted with certain conditions. In some cases, the urban community stipulated the famous minimum students. For example, the city of Vicenza (Northern Italy), established in 1261 the University Course of Canonical Law in 1261, agreed to pay for the work of the professor only if he had at least 20 students.
The church sought to keep university education under its influence. The Vatican was the official patron saint of a number of universities. The main subject of universities was theology. The teachers almost completely served the immigrants from the spiritual estate. Nevertheless, universities of the early Middle Ages according to the program, organization and methods of study looked like a secular alternative to church education.
An important feature of universities was to a certain extent excessive, democratic character. So, on the benches, sorbonna sat people of all ages from many countries. Nearby, Cardinal and a political exile (for example, the Italian Poet of Dante could be. University has not required high costs. There were practically any premises. Instead of the bench, listeners could be located on straw. Students often chose professors from their environments. The order of recording to the university looked very free. Training was paid. Students of the poor were filmed for housing camork, interrupted by random earnings, lessons, bent, westrained. To the XIV century There was even a special category of wandering students (Vagatants, Goliada), who were repeatedly moved from one university to another. Many Vagatants did not differ in morality, often became a genuine scourge for the townships. But from them a lot of devotees of science and education grew.
The first universities were very mobile. If the surroundings began, war and other troubles, the university could play with a spaced place and move to another country or the city. Students and teachers united into national fraud (nation, college). Thus, in the University of Paris, there were four such elfish countries: French, Picar-Diyskoye, English and German, in Bologna - and more seventeen.
Later (in the second half of the XIII century), faculties, or colleges appeared in universities. They were called certain training units, as well as students of students and professors of these divisions. Farms and faculties determined the lives of the first universities. Representatives of Nations (procurators) and faculties (deans) were ordered to comply with the official chapter of the University - Rector. The rector possessed temporary authority (usually for a year). Often, especially in the south of Europe, the responsibilities of the rector performed one of the students. The actual power at the university belonged to nations. By the end of the XV century. The position has changed. The main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities, and the nation has lost their influence.
Faculties awarded scientific degrees, the acquisition of which was estimated in the spirit of the medieval tradition of apprenticeship and knightly education. Sometimes graduates, like knights, crowned loud titles like a graph of law. In the degree of Master, it is not difficult to guess the title, which acquired a student of the artisan. Professors and students thought themselves in the relationship of the master and apprentices. When young man 13 - 14 years old was at the university, he was supposed to sign up at the professor who was responsible for him. The student was engaged in a professor from three to seven years and in the case of successful studies received a bachelor's degree, which was first considered only as a step to a scientific degree. The bachelor visited the lectures of other professors, helped to teach newly new students, that is, it became a kind of "apprentice." As a result, like an artisan, he publicly expressed (i.e. showed) a scientific fitting, protecting it before those who have already received the degree of members of the faculty. After successful protection, the bachelor received a degree (master, doctor, licrateant).
Most of the first universities had several faculties. The learning content was determined by the program of seven free arts. So, at the Faculty of Arts, the writings of Aristotle in logic, physics, ethics, metaphysics, which were translated into the XII century, were mainly read. from Arabic and Greek languages. Specialization increased. Thus, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, Oxford - Canonical Law, Orleans - Civil Law, University in Montpellier (South France) - Medicine, Universities in Spain - Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universities of Italy - Roman Law.
From the student required to attend lectures: Required daytime (ordinary) and repeating evening. Along with lectures, weekly disputes with the obligatory presence of students took place. The teacher (usually a master or license) appointed the topic of the dispute. His assistant - bachelor - led a discussion, i.e. I answered questions and commented on speeches. If necessary, Magistrack came to the rescue. After two times a year, the disputes of "about anything" (without a tightly specified topic) were arranged. In this case, the burning scientific and ideological problems were often discussed. The dispute participants behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker by whistle and shouts.
Universities were an alternative to Scholastics, degenerated into the "science of empty words". Universities contrast to Scholastics an active intellectual life. Thanks to them, the spiritual world of Europe has become much richer. The history of the first universities is closely connected with the work of thinkers who gave a new impetus to the development of culture, science and enlightenment (R Bacon, Ya. Gus, A. Dante, J. Winkley, N. Copernicus, F. Petrarka, etc.).
