Early bourgeois states and enlightened absolutism in Europe. Enlightened absolutism in Europe and Russia in the XVIII in enlightened absolutism of Europe of the 18th century

Enlightenment - Fayan XVII - XVIII
centuries based on
Believe in decisive
Rights of mind and science in
knowledge of nature I.
societies.

Philosophy of Enlightenment - "The Kingdom of Mind"

Immanuel Kant
Adam Smith
Volter.
John Lokk
Sh. Montesquie
Denis Didro
J. - J. Rousseau

Theory of "Enlightened Absolutism"

"Enlightened absolutism" -
Politics of a number of absolutist states
Europe in Ser. And the 2nd floor. XVIII century,
Characterized by the following signs:
Following the ideas of enlightenment
Stay at the head of the state "enlightened"
monarch capable of transforming public
Life at reasonable principles
Gobbs Thomas
- English philosopher,
The founder of public theories
contract and enlightened absolutism
The desire to achieve in the state
"Total Good" by reform

Geography of "Enlightened Absolutism"

One of the first
Enlightened monarchs
Spanish King Karl III
The greatest enthusiasms of enlighteners
Called Russian Empress
Catherine II.
and the Austrian emperor Joseph II

"Enlightened absolutism" in Prussia

Friedrich II reforms
Restriction of serfdom
Codification of legislation
Establishment of independence
judicial authority
Canceling torture
Installation of guarantees
Property rights

Cancellation of pre-censorship
Friedrich II Great -
Expansion of the initial system
Education
King Prussia
From the dynasty of Hohenzollers

"Enlightened absolutism" in Austria

Joseph II reforms
abolition of serfdom
publication of criminal and civil
Codes
Edition of the Decision of Valipability
Publicity and legalization
Critics of the monarch in print
Maria Teresia -
ERCGERSOGINA AUSTRIA
From the Dynasty of Habsburg
Joseph II -
Emperor Sacred
Roman Empire,
Ertzgercog Austria
From the Habsburg dynasty.
Son Mary Teresia

"Enlightened absolutism" in Denmark and Norway

Reforms I. F. Stonzze
Establishment of freedom of print
Cancel torture and corporal punishment
Replacing Natural Means Money
and the abolition of the barbecue in a number of regions
Liquidation of monopoly
in the industrial and craft sphere
cancellation of criminal liability for extramarital
Communication and legal discrimination against extramarital children
Total - about 600 events for 2 years
Stunze Johann Friedrich -
Head of the Government of Denmark and Norway
With Christian VII

"Enlightened absolutism" in Sweden

1771
Message: Completion of the Era of Freight
, elimination of class institutions
Parliamentarism and the restoration of absolutism
The reforms of Gustav III
publication of the law on freedom of speech
Establishing freedom of cult
For adherents of informal verbs
Prohibition of investigative and court torture
Gustav III -
King Sweden
from the Golstein-Gottorpian dynasty

Despotism in France

Versailles - Official Royal Residence
In 1682-1789.
Louis Xiv.
("King Sun") -
King France
from the bourbon dynasty
"The state is me!"
Louis Xiv.

"Galant Century" Louis XV

Palace Big Trianon in Versailles
"After us, at least a flood! ..."
Pompadour
Zhanna-Antoinetta de Poisson,
Marquis de Pompadur -
Favorite Louis XV.
Louis XV Beloved -
King France
from the bourbon dynasty

Psychology of the Aristocracy of the Galant Century

infantility of views and behavior
fear of old age, reluctance to grow
The desire to live today's day
Fighting boredom, thirst for daily change
Permanent holiday of holiday, entertainment and games
hedonism
Return from productive activities
awareness of the possibility of living at the expense of others

Monarchy on the eve of the Great French Revolution

counseutors
Infringement of law rights:
- ban on production in
Officers of all other than nobles
- ban by the clergy on
Collection without permission
bosses
- Ban the Third Society
to filling judicial
posts
Pumping treasury on
Queen content I.
Gifts courtesy
Edition Edikt about ban
Parliament and arrest
Some of his members
Maria Antoinette -
Louis XVI -
Queen of France,
Spouse Louis XVI.
King France
from the bourbon dynasty

The introductory part.

Enlightened absolutism was distributed in a number of countries in Western
Europe in the 18th century. It was an attempt to reform absolutism,
Adjust it to changed conditions, put on the service of the monarchy
Some ideas of enlighteners. The most vivid examples of enlightened
Absolutism of historians traditionally consider the Board of Mary Terezia in
Austria (1740-1780) and Joseph II (1780-1790), Friedrich II in Prussia
(1740-1786), Karl III in Spain (1759-1788) and Catherine II in Russia
(1762-1796). What unites these reigns?

First, the understanding of the fact that to preserve the basic maintenance of the "old
The order "society needs certain changes. All listed above
Monarchs can be called conservative reformers. Set
The transformations carried out during this period was approximately the same in
All countries: Promotion of trade, education, restriction
spheres of workforce structures, attempt to optimize finance and
public administration and, finally, very careful steps,
aimed at the modernization of agricultural relations.

Secondly, the change in the views of the elite to the world, the society itself, the state.
Transformed the entire hierarchy of values \u200b\u200bguided by
Enlightened monarchs and their surroundings. Previously, the worldview and
The tops of the Society lay church dogmas. Stripping from them,
Detected norms of everyday life, relationships between different
social groups, justified the principles of the state device,
Demitted state tasks in the international arena. Now they strive
Find a rational explanation and justification of all sides
vital activity of society. The patronage of science and art has become
Sign of good tone.

Finally, the departure from theological imperatives was preparing the ground for
gradual transition to civil society. Of course, its creation
Nobody planned. But objectively all those reforms that were discussed
Above, all movements in the mentality of the elite, a powerful explosion of humanitarian knowledge
Predefined the deepening of the crisis of the old society. As a result, outwardly
The magnificent flourishing of absolutism is only camouflated its numerous
Internal flaws.

Thirdly, the views on the essence of the state, his nature entailed for
By itself, the acceleration of the formation process began in the middle of the 17th century
Concepts of state interests of leading countries in Europe. it
contributed to the strengthening of the system began in international relations,
split separate European countries in single complexliving by
With his own norms for him, strengthened legal principles. In other words,
Enlightened absolutism gave impetus to the formation of such a phenomenon as
European civilization. And it is not by chance that it is at this time that
The first projects of creating a "United Europe".

Enlightened absolutism in Europe.

The essence of the politician of enlightened absolutism was to, without changing
Essentially state forms of the absolute monarchy, within these
forms, on top of reform in the economic, political, cultural
regions aimed at the modernization of obsolete phenomena of feudal
order. The most deepened monarchical concept of enlightened
Absolutism gave Prussian King Friedrich II Great, who left after
Himself a 30-Tomny collection of works. Influenced by the ideas of enlighteners
Friedrich II issued a set of laws - "Friedrich Code", introduced in Prussia
Equal for all court, installed violence, canceled torture. but
Fascination with the ideas of enlightenment in Friedrich II was shallow, what can
judge by his practical affairs. So, the entire social system of Prussia, with
the predominance of nobility over other classes, he left without
Changes.

More consistently conducted the policies of the enlightened absolutism Joseph
II, who after the death of Father Franz Stephen became German
the emperor, and after the death of Mary Teresia inherited Austrian
possessions. In its ten-year reign in Austria (1780-1790) he
spent a number of reforms, the main of which is the liberation of peasants from
Fortress dependence, empowering their land. The most deeply I.
consistently reform Joseph II affected the proceedings ("Joseph
Leader "). However, he liquidated the autonomy of land and provinces
The empires of the Habsburgs, encouraged the German colonization of Hungary,
Transylvania, Galicia.

Enlightenment politicized public consciousness and contributed to growth
revolutionary sentiment in society. Bright evidence of the brewing
public crisis was the great French revolution, main
The reason for which there was a wide discontent of the population layers
dominant feudal-absolutist construction and its inconsistency
The objectives of the economic, social and political development of the country.

Development industry.

The peculiarity of the economic development of Europe was that the most
The rapid growth of industry was observed on two of her stripes - in the extreme
West, in early burglais states, as well as in France with her already
developed bourgeois structure, and on the other hand - in the extreme east, in
Russia, where, despite the domination of the feudal system, was noted
Accelerated development of serf manufactory.

For the first half of the 18th century, England strengthened his position
Developed in an industrial country of Europe. France managed
Save and even slightly increase the share of its industry
Compared to other countries. On the contrary, Bourgeois Holland lost
Former value. In general, the slow pace of development has been preserved in
Central Europe, with the exception of Prussia, Saxony, areas of Lower
Rhine and Czech Republic. In Southeast Europe, which was part of the Ottoman
Empire, as well as in Poland, individual raising features were weakly distinguishable
Outside the background of economic stagnation.

In the early 18th century, manufactory production in Europe entered into
The last stage of its development, directly preceding
industrial revolution. This provision applies primarily to
England, Holland and France. Most developed in industrial
The country of Europe was England.

England's victory in the economic competition with Holland was victory
English industrial capitalism over the Dutch shopping
capitalism, capitalist home industry - over urban
Manufactory of her rival. Rustic scattered manufactory in England,
Using cheap labor turned out to be more competitive.
Holland lags behind England and in metallurgy due to insufficient
development of the fuel and energy base. In England, the concentration process and
specializations of manufactory achieved special development in the middle of the 18th century, nor
One country of Europe could not compete with it in a variety of industries
Industrial production. In the middle of the 18th century english wool
industry, according to contemporaries, was "divided into various
parts or industries that secured in certain places where everything
Production comes down entirely or mainly to these industries:
Thin Sukna are produced in Somersetshire, rough - in yorkshire, double
Widths - in Exeter, Silk - in Sudbury, crepe - in Norig, half-walled
Matters - in Kendal, blankets - in Whitney, etc. ".

In France in the first half of the 18th century, more than 100 species
A variety of silk fabrics. Light industry on scale
Production overtook heavy. For the 18th century everywhere
The process of forming a manufactory proletariat occurred. In different
countries This process was at different stages. Transformation
the peasant in the working village manuff was an important
Step in the development of the entire European continent.

In France, state subsidies contributed to the spread
woolen industry in rural areas in the south of the country that
compensated for the decline of such old centers as Reims, Lille,
Amiens French cloth successfully competed with English on
colonial market.

The increased process of specialization was accompanied by the creation of combinations
Different manufactories. On these combined manufactories production
Production means turned out to be associated with a manufactory for which
This product was raw material.

The light industry has long overtook the scale of gravity.
So, in France at the end of the 18th century for some calculations, annual products
The textile industry amounted to 1906 million in cash.
Livra, metallurgy - 88 million livres, mining of mineral fuel - 10
million livres. The growth rate of the industry was small. For France,
For example, they averaged an average percent. Extensive
Growth factors completely prevailed over intense.

Industrial coup - Transition from manuffs with manual labor
Factories and plants based on the use of machines. This is global
The phenomenon, but it took place in different countries at different times. His Motherland
There was England.

Start of industrial coup in England.

The maturity of the manufactory itself did not cause the industrial revolution.
Aging conditions for the start of the industrial coup was not determined
the predominant form of manufactory, and the character of its internal and external
Wednesdays, i.e. Those, there was a manufactory part of the capitalist economy
or only a part of the capitalist defendant within the feudal country.
At a certain stage of development, in the framework of the bourgeois country became
Tangible narrowness of the technical basis of manufactory, and in the feudal country -
the narrowness of the domestic market, various restrictions of capitalist
Entrepreneurship due to the preservation of feudal relations. IN
Mid 18th century Manufactory on national scale Only in England
reached the level of maturity at which its technical basis entered into
contradiction with its most created production capabilities and
Requests of internal and external markets. Thus, only in England
Economic and socio-political prerequisites appeared to begin
industrial revolution.

The basis of the coup in the textile industry in the 1780s. were
Shuttle-plane J. Keia (1704 - 1764), spinning car J. Hargrivms
(? - 1778), Mül-car S. Krompton (1753 - 1827), water machine
(Watermashina) R. Arkraight (1732 - 1792). Implementation of machines in production
Meaning a huge jerk forward: no most perfect manual work
Could compete with machinery. Naturally, rapid development
The cotton industry immediately revealed the lag of others
Industry industries. To overcome it and here, it was necessary
Immediately enter cars. Technical thought suggested many
solutions, and, gradually improving, the cars penetrated into all the most important
Production branches - coal mining, iron production, etc. In 1784
Englishman James Watt (1736 - 1819), Scientist and Designer, invented
The first universal engine is a steam machine leading to move
Different working mechanisms. This invention opened the way to
Further acceleration and improvement of machine production. In that
year English Metallurg Kort (1740 - 1800) has developed a way
Rolling the shaped iron, improved the pumping process. IN
England instead of wood fuel began to apply stone coal.

Development of transport.

Progressive division of labor, concentration of production guns and
Workers, specialization of districts required a fundamental improvement in funds
transport. In the early 18th century, England lagged behind this regard
Only from France, but also from Italy. For the first half of the 18th century
The length of the newly laid or fundamentally improved roads in
England amounted to 1600 miles. In 1673, a trip in a postal carriage from
London in Exeter took from 8 to 12 days, and in 1760 - from 4 to 6
days. The cost of transportation is constantly declining. By 1760 England
disposable rivers and channels whose length
was 1460 miles. Construction of expensive and channels successfully
carried out in other countries. By the middle of the 18th century it was completed
The construction of main roads connecting Paris with the borders of France.
On a trip from Paris to Lyon in 1660. 10 days left, and in 1770 - 5
days.

Trade.

The 18th century was a century of trade. In the first two thirds of the 18th century more quickly
compared to the manufactory, which was also originally initially
Focused on the domestic market, foreign trade developed.
Capital concentration in trade, as a rule, overtook its concentration
in industry. Trade of Europeans with the countries of Asia was reduced to
Passive balance. For a long time, oriental crafts prevailed in it.
Products, tobacco, spices, tea, coffee. In trade with America often the main
An article by the import of labor became facing Africans.

In the 18th century, England managed to turn their possessions in America in extensive,
Fast expanding market for its manufactory goods. British
The goods penetrated into the markets of Portugal and its possessions. The main thing
London became the European transshipment point in overseas trading. FROM
London shared the role of the Centers of the Overseas Trade Amsterdam, Bordeaux,
Hamburg and Lisbon.

France remained a serious trade competitor to England in the 18th century,
Which in numbers more than doubled England.
The most profitable foreign trade industries were firmly captured.
merchants and shipowners of several large port cities before
Total Bordeaux and Nantes. For example, in 1717, Bordeaux trade was
13 million Livrov, and in 1789 - 250 million livres, annual growth rates
accounted for 4.4 percent, at the rate of growth in the industry of France - from
1.5 to 1.19 percent.

The main type of combat between competitors - trade wars,
which were not only in the name of trade interests, but in many cases
contributed to its development and financed at the expense of income from
Trade.

Agriculture.

In the 18th century, Europe still remained largely agricultural
continent. Development of agriculture, increase its effectiveness,
As before, it was prerequisite existence and normal
The functioning of society.

Even in the most developed countries in industrial countries, most
The population was employed in agriculture. In England at the beginning of the 18th century 75
% of the population was employed in agriculture, in France - 80 - 85%, in
Finland - 81%. Agrarian production in various regions of Europe
There was no way. The cause of very significant regional features in
Development of agrarian life Western Europe Period of manufactory
Production was, above all, the difference in the paths of the evolution of forms
Land ownership. In the classic way to go to the estate of the new
Type, characteristic of capitalist production, was committed
Only in England, where the three-star division of the rural society was observed:
Wired working - Capitalist tenant - Landlord. At the heart of this
Process - the expropriation of the peasantry, parliamentary end
18th century.

The English version of the capitalist agrarian evolution was reproduced
In French Flanders and Northeast Normandy.

However, for most of the territory of Europe of the 18th century, petty dominated
Peasant land use with the formation characteristic
capitalist elements from intercresan relations as a result
socio-economic differentiation of agricultural
manufacturers. Differences were to a greater or lesser extent.
Economic independence of such farms. So, the most stable
Market relations of small peasant farms were characteristic of
Flanders and the Northern Netherlands. In southern France, southern Italy, North
Spain, North-West Germany and some other peasants
There were smaller economic independence and mobility.

Different regions of Europe differ significantly in the type historically
established agricultural specialization. The main countries of the
The production of grain was Poland, Prussia, Russia, Northern France,
Netherlands. The centers of winemaking were France, Spain, Italy.

Livestock, trade in cattle, wool and dairy products were
Particularly characteristic of the Netherlands, Sweden and England.

For most countries of Western Europe, the 18th century was a century of qualitatively
New phenomena in agriculture. Especially famous Norfolkskaya
Six-foolet system of crop rotation: the field was divided into 19-20 sites,
used six sections combined in the known
Sequences practically without the use of steam. Combined
Sowing reduced the danger of not enough harvest in cold spring.

In the 18th century, the practice of continental and island Europe was introduced
Buckwheat, maize, potatoes, flax. During this period were achieved and
Specific progress in the invention and the introduction of agricultural
Technicians (Light Brabant Plow, Flemish Harbor, Sickle Replaced
oblique). Other technical innovations were used.

As a result of technical coup as one of the manifestations of agrarian
The revolution of manual labor in agricultural production in significant
The extent was replaced by machine. But here the cars used to be introduced before
England, then in France and Germany.

Capitalist restructuring in the agricultural sector of Europe of the 18th century was not
Rectilinear, in many countries there are preserved feudal methods
farms.

A feature of countries such as Italy and France was the existence
Radies - short-term peasant lease with predominance
Natural payments, although in general for Europe of the 18th century were characteristic
Changes in the structure of the lease: raising the role of capitalist lease,
significantly greater involvement of hired work; Increased norm
operation of small tenants at the expense of how direct rental growth
payments and changes in their structure and form.

Shifts in the social structure.

Economic changes caused notable shifts in the social structure
European society. Bourgeoisie was heterogeneous in all European
countries, but the degree of this inhomogeneity was different.
Preferred tops consisted of merchants, financiers,
Tax depositors. The proportion and political influence of this layer in
Different countries were different. In early burglais states
Representatives of this layer actually stood in power, even if the highest
Posts in the state office held representatives of the noble
Aristocracy. So it was in England, and in France. The positions of this layer were
weak in economically less developed countries of Central and Northern
Europe.

The new layer in the bourgeoisie of steel manufactories, development
Manufactory led to an increase in the number of manufactory
proletariat.

The common economic rise led to a demographic growth. Population
Europe has increased by about 118 million people. in 1700 to 140 million in
1750 and up to 187 million in 1800 the population of England increased the most rapidly,
In the century it has doubled - from 6 to 11 million in France Population
increased from 16 million in 1715 to 26 million in 1789.

The last quarter of the 18th century in a world-historical scale has become
The time of the crash of feudalism, the time of the beginning of the bourgeois revolution.

French enlightenment.

It is under the influence of French enlightenment of the 18th century in Europe arose
Such a state policy as an enlightened absolutism.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe moral revival of society by political methods - folk
uprising, the population of wide spheres of social life - gave
Special peculiarity of French enlightenment, outstanding representatives
which were Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778), Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689 -
1755), Voltaire (1634 -1778), Didro days (1783 - 1784), etc.

Political views of Rousseau stated in the composition "On public
agreement ", in which the company puts forward a society, proving that
Society earlier belonged to all the power it under the contract
passed the rulers to enjoy this power in the interests
Society itself. But since the rulers began to abuse this
the authorities to the detriment of society, Rousseau proposes again to take the power to society in
His hands to create a democratic republican state. IN
such a state every full member of society should take
Direct participation in management, legislation and court. Thus
In the opinion of Rousseau, civil equality will be achieved.

The main work of Montesquieu "On the spirit of laws" contained ideas of law and
States, and therefore was relevant for many European monarchs. IN
It is montescience conducts the idea that legislation and
The state device of each country must adapt to its
climatic and soil conditions, as well as religion, nature and
The degree of development of its people. From various forms of state reign
He gives preference to republican, application of it in practice
considers it possible, subject to the development of all citizens and their readiness to
The role of rulers. He did not see in modern states conditions for
Republican form of government, so stops on
constitutional monarchy in which the executive belongs
Monarch, and legislature - elected folk representatives. Court
Must be independent of the administration.

In their political views, Voltaire was a monarchist, consisted of friendship
and correspondence with many European monarchs. To possess
autocratic power did not led to abuse and arbitrariness,
The opinion of Voltaire, the state trucks were to be philosophically formed,
Surrounded by philosophers and guided by philosophy, which guarantees
Justice and usefulness of their orders. Voltaire preached began
humanity and justice, insisted on a radical transformation
medieval forms of legal proceedings, on the abolition of torture, called for cancellation
serfdom, to destroy feudal privileges.

The so-called encyclopedists were also a big influence on society.
Members of the Didro Mug, published from 1751 to 1776. "Encyclopedia sciences,
Arts and crafts. " They criticized existing views and orders,
called for judicial reform, religious freedom, the destruction of class
Privileges, the liberation of peasants, public representation and other
democratic rights and freedoms of citizens.

The crisis of absolutism

The crisis of absolutism mostly manifested itself in France. Aspiration
Bourbon approve their hegemony in European affairs required
Building the relics of the country. And this in turn suggested
Forced development of economic potential. But it is here
The socio-economic relations who rested themselves turned into
A serious obstacle on the way forward. Political power not only ne
helped the formation of optimal conditions for economic growth, but
In every possible way, the old orders of magnitude preserved the development of bourgeois
relations in the agrarian sphere, retained the workshop system, provided
Benefits to individual monopoly trading companies. Constantly intensified
Tax press, sucking money from all areas of economic life.
Inside the country, rudiments are preserved in its administrative system.
medieval fragmentation that prevented the folding of a single common
French market. For example, between the mouth and the tops of the Loire - one
From the main trade routes within France - existed 75 customs
barriers.

No less problems also existed in the social sphere. System retained
Casting privileges who closed the third road to the highest
administrative, judicial and military posts. At the same time the main
The severity of the tax burden was exactly the third estate. It is clear that in
This environment grew displeasure to the existing order of things. But in the medium
Aristocracy appeared dissatisfaction with absolutism, there were popular
The ideas of the revival of the past political liberties of the nobility. Eventually
Social base of absolutism was steadily narrowed.

Since 1715, the royal throne Louis XV, unlike
Enlightened monarchs of Austria, Prussia, Russia, striving
upgrade the foundations of the "old order", spent all his energy on
Favorite. It is not surprising that state affairs came to everything
larger disorder. Fallen and prestige of France. The reflection of this was her
Serious defeat in a seven-year war (1756-1763), as a result
which she lost most of their colonial possessions. Military
failure, the obvious crisis of absolutism strongly demanded
reforms. In the last period of his reign (1770-1774) Louis XV
Under pressure from circumstances, he was confused attempts to somehow
Braim the progressive crisis. However, a clear idea of
How to achieve this, nor with his entity, there was no
Will for transformation. Internal distribution in the ruling elite
Finally buried all this plans.

So, by the end of the 18th century, the possibilities of absolutism to maintain the obstivities
"Old order" narrowed noticeably. Live in old, without changing anything,
It became more complicated. To keep the situation under control,
had to contain a huge state apparatus using benefits
buy the loyalty of the aristocracy, increase the cost of the army as
The main guarantor of the country's security. But all this required all the big and
big money. Ensure their influx could only dynamically developing
economy. However, the "old order" with his cruel, petty
regulation of all parties to economic activities, numerous
restrictions that fought all the socio-economic sphere,
prevented the formation of a market economy, which is only capable
Provide a high-quality leap in the development of society.

Attempts by representatives of enlightened absolutism to find a junction
accumulated problems at the expense of individual reforms
brought the desired result. Brutal canons on which it was based
Medieval society, poorly re-reformed: everything was in it
Maximum interconnected and interdepended, and any attempt somehow
Modify any of the supporting structures immediately noticeably
undermined the sustainability of the entire system. By virtue of this, the reforms of the enlightened
Monarchs, removing the most stringent and outdated restrictions, several
Expanding opportunities for public progress, at the same time
loosened the basics of the world order in which they tried to breathe
New life. Thus, and this development option is not so
Obviously, as frankly-guard, but also largely exhausted its
capabilities.

Enlightened absolutism in Russia.

In Russia, as in other European countries, the transitional era from
feudalism to capitalism spawned the ideology of enlightenment. By period
Enlightened absolutism belongs to the 60s. - Board time
Empress Catherine II.

Enlightened absolutism in Russia is characterized by such events, in
which were interested in nobles and the very state, but which
same time contributed to the development of new capitalist defendant.
An important feature of the policies of the enlightened absolutism, which indicates
Researchers, was the desire of monarchs to weaken the severity of social
contradictions in their countries by improving political
superstructures

Having entered the throne, Catherine took the reign in the early years
Trips around the country: in 1763 went to
RRRORROLOPROLLPROROTORRLOPLROGROLDORROLORRLDORROSTS AND YAROSLAVL, in 1764 visited
Baltic province, in 1765 he drove along the Ladoga Channel, in 1767
G. According to the Volga in Barka about Tver to Simbirsk, and then by land returned to
Moscow. Empress met everywhere with indescribable delight. In Kazan
Were ready, as V.O. Klyuchevsky, Himself to lay instead of a carpet under
The legs of the empress. Running travel observations could inspire Catherine
Many government considerations. She met along the path of the city,
"The situation is beautiful, and the structure of frozen." The people in their culture were
lower than the surrounding nature. "So I am in Asia," wrote Catherine
Voltaire from Kazan. This city especially struck her with a variety of population.
"This is a special kingdom," she wrote, - so many different objects,
Decent attention, and ideas for 10 years can be scored here. " Until
The accumulated observations did not have time to work out in the whole
transducement plan, Catherine, according to the words of Klyuchevsky, "Hurry
Sharpen the most sharp controls of the control. "

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine has developed
A certain idea of \u200b\u200bwhat needs to be done for prosperity
states. "I wish, I only want a good country, where God led me,
"He wrote before the top of the center," the country's glory is my own glory. "

The commission of the Commission on the preparation of the project of new deposits.

Catherine II decided to give Russia a Legislative Code based on
Principles of new philosophy and science, open era of education. With this
The goal in 1767. Catherine II began to prepare the famous
Instructions - "Commission on the preparation of the project of new deposits".
With its compilation, she, on his own recognition, "Revollae"
Montesquieu, who developed the idea of \u200b\u200bseparating the authorities in the state, and
Other his followers. Her policy of enlightened absolutism
Estimated the Board of the "Wisdom on the throne". She was well educated
I knew the writings of enlighteners - Voltaire, Didro, etc., consisted of them in
correspondence.

She managed to mislead them, they considered it the benefactor
Nation, patron of art. Voltaire called her "Northern Star", and in
Letter to one Russian correspondent wrote: "I only three
Item: freedom, tolerance and your empress. " About attitude
Catherine II to the views of the enlighteners testify its memories of
Meetings with Didro: "I talked with him for a long time, but more of curiosity,
than with benefit. If I believed him, I would have to transform
the whole empire, destroy the legislation, government, politics,
Finance and replace them with unrealistic dreams. " "OKAV" - compilation,
compiled by several works of the educational direction
of that period. The main one is the books of Montesquiece "On the Spirit of Laws" and work
Italian criminologist Beckaria (1738 - 1794) "On crimes and
punishments. "

The book of Montesquiene Catherine called the prayerman of the state having
common sense. "Okaz" consisted of 20 chapters to which were then
Two more are added. Chapters are divided into 655 articles, of which 294 were
Borrowed at Montec region. Ekaterina and the treatise
Beccaria, directed against the rest of the medieval criminal
Process with his torture, who held a new look at the sane
Crimes and feasibility of punishment. "Okaz" was imbued
Humane and Liberal Spirit. He argued the need for autocracy in
Russia due to the vastness of the space of the empire and the diversity of its parts.
The purpose of the autocratic board is not that "so that people take a natural
their liberty, but to send them to get to get the largest
from all good. "

In the "AUDMENT" of the Empress quotes from the essays of the enlighteners were used
to substantiate the serfdom and strong autocratic power, although
Certain concessions by developing bourgeois relations were made.
The features of enlightened absolutism are viewed in the creation of ships,
separated from administrative institutions, the implementation of the electoral principle
when replacing some posts, in unscrewing training,
Proclaimed in 1786 with the organization of provincial and county schools.
She confirmed the manifesto "on the liberties of the noble" and decree
secularization of church lands, as a result, began gradual
abolition of serfdom. It was expressed in the fact that the peasants, not looking
for the fact that there should be a flew tax could move freely and
choose yourself. She ordered to close the monasteries, and churches
Make parish. She divided monasteries into three classes, and in each
The class could be accepted a strictly defined number of monks. Thanks
she, the Old Believers received the right to freely settle in Moscow, which is again
Confirms her love for culture. Giving an assessment of "punishment" of Catherine II,
IN. Klyuchevsky wrote: "Free from political convictions, she
Replaced them with tactical policies. Not releasing any of the hands
autocracy threads, she allowed indirect and even direct participation
societies in management ... autocratic power, according to her thought, got a new
The appearance, became something like a personally constitutional absolutism. IN
society, lost a sense of law, and such an accident as successful
The personality of the monarch could enter the legal guarantee. " (Russian course
stories. C.V, s. 7).

"Locked Commission."

The largest event of enlightened absolutism appeared in 1767
Commission on the composition of the project of the new deposits (laid commission).
The Social Composition of the Commission, according to Kuevsky's calculations, looked like
way: out of 564 deputies 5 percent accounted for government
institutions, from cities - 39, nobility - 30, rural inlays - 14
percent. On the Cossacks, Noggorod residents and the remaining classes had to
12 percent.

Mounted Commission of the beginning of the meeting in the Granovic Chamber of Moscow
Kremlin in the summer of 1767 to the following Russian reality work
This Commission did not affect, but but noise and loud phraseology around
This sharing of the empress was abound. At one of the meetings
Catherine was assigned the title "The Great, Will Mother of Fatherland".
Catherine did not accept and did not rejected the title, although in the note Marshal A.I.
Bibkov (1729 - 1774) expressed his discontent: "I told them to do
Russian Empire laws, and they make apologies to my qualities. " By
Tyuchevsky's data, the Commission worked a year and a half, held 203
meetings, limited to the discussion of the peasant question and
legislation, but due to the beginning of the war with Turkey, it was dissolved and
More in full formation was not going.

The new Code of Laws under Catherine was not compiled. Work of the Commission
turned out to be fruitless, which showed how much the disagreement between
estates. Extensive office work preserved only the importance of the monument
The social and historical thought of Russia Epochs of Catherine II.

Russian enlighteners.

The idea of \u200b\u200bFrench enlighteners shared not only the Empress, but also
Some Russian Velmazby. Count Andrei Shuvalov was famous friendly
Relations with Voltaire and was considered among the enlighteners "Northern Patron".
On the means of Prince D.A. Golitsyn (1734 -1803) in the Hague printed
Forbidden in France, an essay of Gelving (1715 - 1771) "On a man".
Favorit Catherine Count Grigory Orlov (1734 - 1783) and Cyrill Count
Razumovsky (1728 - 1803) competed with each other in granting
favorable conditions for creativity undergoing persecuted home
France, J.Zh. Rousseau. At the court of Catherine discussed works
Famous French enlighteners, translated them into Russian.

Peasant War 1773 - 1775 Emelyan Pugacheva (1740 - or 1742 -
1775) And the Great French Bourgeois Revolution of 1789 laid an end
Fleeves Catherine II and its surroundings with ideals of enlightenment. Storm
Bastille, alarming information about the burning of the noble castles reminded
Russian feudalities about the peasant war in Russia.

Having received news of the execution of Louis XVI, the yard announced six-day mourning in
Petersburg. Russia has become a refuge for French exiles. Any
Information about events in France was exposed to strictest censorship, were
Diplomatic connections with France are broken.

At the same time, the internal reaction intensified. The first victim became
Writer, thinker A.N. Radishchev (1749 - 180) - the author of "Travel from
Petersburg to Moscow. " In 1749 A.N. Radishchev was made deadly
The verdict, replaced in 1792 by reference to Tobolsk for a period of 10 years.
Following the Radish repression, the publisher N.I. was subjected Novikov (1744.
- 1818), which in 1792 was arrested and sharpened for 15 years in
Schlisselburg fortress. The fate of Radishchev and Novikov divided and
Some other active representatives of the Enlightenment.

These facts marked the open end of the policies of the enlightened
Absolutism in Russia.

Agriculture.

Still the leading industry of the Russian economy remained rural
economy. Feudal-serpentine relations spread styling and
deep into They covered new territories and new categories of the population.
The main path of development of this industry is extensive, at the expense of development
New territories.

The expansion of serfdom can be judged by the establishment of a serf
Rights in 1783 at the Left Bank Ukraine, in 1796 - in the south of Ukraine,
Crimea and Precocalism. After entering Russia, Belarus and
Right-Bank Ukraine The serf system was saved there. Part
Land was distributed to Russian landowners. In 1755 as permanent
Workers in the Ural Plants were fixed factory workers.

The position of the fortress peasants worsened - the landowners received in 1765
permission to link your peasants to Siberia on the booth, and without trial and
consequences. The peasants could be sold, play the card. When
The recognition of the peasants in the inscooling inscools themselves were to pay
Expenses associated with the suppression of their speeches - such a measure
Provided by Decree 1763 in 1767, a decree was issued prohibiting
The complaints of the peasants Empress on their landowners.

From the point of view of using various forms of operation in this
Two large areas have developed: on the black earth and southern lands of the lead
Standing (born), in areas with non-fermentation soil -
Cash missile. By the end of the 18th century in the Black Earth Gubnia received
Distribution of the month, which meant deprivation of the farm peasant
put on and getting them a meager fee for his work.

At the same time, more and more signs of expansion of serfdom appeared.
production relations. This is evidenced by the attempts of individual
landowners apply technical devices, enter multipolive
crop rotations, grow new cultures and even build manufactory - all
It led to an increase in the economy of the economy, although its foundation remained
Fastener.

Industry.

In the second half of the 18th century, the industry has received further development.
Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II continued to be carried out by Peter I
Policy promoting the development of the domestic industry and the Russian
Trade.

In the middle of the 18th century, the first cotton has appeared in Russia
Manufactory owned by merchants, and a slightly later - and
Rogue peasants. By the end of the century, their number reached 200. Moscow
Gradually became the major center of the textile industry.

Important for the development of domestic industrial production
Established the edition of 1775 by Manifesta Catherine II about a free institution
Industrial enterprises representatives of all the layers of the then society.
Manifesto eliminated many restrictions in the creation of industrial enterprises
And allowed "to all and every kind of mills". Speaking
Modern tongue, in Russia freedom of entrepreneurship was introduced.
In addition, Ekaterina II canceled fees in a number of production with small
Fishes. The adoption of manifest was the form of promoting nobility and
To adapt it to new economic conditions. At the same time, these
The measures reflected the growth of capitalist defendant in the country.

By the end of the 18th century, more than 2 thousand industrials operated in the country
enterprises, some of them were very large, with the number of workers
More than 1,200 people.

In the heavy industry, then in the first place in the main indicators
There was a Ural Mining and Metallurgical District.

Leading position, still occupied metallurgical
industry. The basis of its development was the need for internal,
And the external market. Russian metallurgy at this time took advanced
Positions, both in Europe and in the world. It was distinguished by high technical
Level, Ural Doms were more productive than
Western European. As a result of the successful development of the domestic
Metallurgy Russia was one of the world's largest exporters
gland.

In 1770, there were already 5.1 million pounds of cast iron in the country, and in England -
About 2 million pounds. IN last years 18th century ISP gas in Russia
reached 10 million pounds.

The center of copper was the southern Urals. In the middle of the 18th century in the Urals
The first gold mining enterprises are based.

Received further development and other industries, including
including glass, leather, paper.

Industrial development took place in two basic forms - pleading
Production and large manufactory production. The main trend in B.
The development of small-scale production was its gradual outlook in
Cooperation and manufactory type enterprises.

On the principles of cooperation, work on water transport was organized,
who played a big role in the economic life of the country. At the end of the 18th century
Only on the rivers of the European part of Russia were used at least 10 thousand.
Ships. Cooperation and fisheries were widely used.

Thus, in the development of the industry in Russia in the 18th century there was
Real jump. Compared with the end of the 17th century in all sectors
industrial production has repeatedly increased the number of large
enterprises of manufactory type and the volume of their products, although at the end of 18
century the pace of development of Russian metallurgy compared to English
declined because industrial coup began in England.

Along with the quantitative in the Russian industry, important
Socio-economic changes: the number of busy
labor force and capitalist manufactories. From industry industries
We used free work, enterprises should be called
Textile industry, where peasants and peasants worked. Being
fortress peasants, they earned the required amount (lifts) for
Paying to your landowner. In this case, the relationship of free hiring, in
who introduced the breeder and the fortress peasant, were represented by
Capitalist production relations.

From 1762 it was forbidden to buy fortress peasants to the factories,
The sequisition of them to enterprises stopped. Manufactory based after
this year by persons of no noble origin, used exclusively
Wolne-free labor.

In 1775, decree was issued, allowing the peasant industry that
stimulated the development of production, attracted the growth of breeders from merchants and
peasants.

It can be stated that at the end of the 18th century in Russia the process of folding
capitalist industrial relations has become irreversible, although in
The economy dominated the serfdom of a tremendous influence
on forms, paths and pace of development of capitalism and determined in the final
Account since the end of the 18th century, the economic lag of Russia from others
European countries.

Internal and foreign trade.

Internal consolidation of the Russian Empire in the 18th century contributed
Rapid development of connections between its regions, the formation of the All-Russian
Market. The total turnover of Russia's foreign trade increased from 14 million rubles
per year in the 50s to 110 million rubles in the 90s of the 18th century. Deepened
Specialization of economic activities by districts, STR
exchange. On numerous bidding and fairs sold bread chernozem
Center and Ukraine. From the Volga region came wool, skin, fish. Ural
supplied iron; Non-honeycomb districts were famous for handicrafts;
North traded salt and fish; Novgorod and Smolensk land supplied
flax and hemp; Siberia and North - Fair.

An important role for the development of the All-Russian market was reflected in 1754
Internal customs duties. This decree was taken in order to
merchants and nobility, because they and others actively included
in trading operations. Then the internal customs trait was canceled
between Russia and Ukraine, a number of other industrial and trading
restrictions, as well as monopolies on Silk and Cite.

Trade development contributed to the improvement of roads, the construction of channels,
Development of shipping. Increased the role of trade bourgeoisie. There are new
Trading points, the number of fairs, bazaars, Torzhkov rose. Rosla
The number of merchants. In 1775, merchants were freed from the pillow
Catering and covered with a guild duty in the amount of 1% of the announced
Capital. Mercury received the right to participate in the local court.

In the second half of the 18th century due to the abolition of Petrovsky
The protectionist fare Foreign trade turnover of Russia increased. She is
traded with England, Sweden, Iran, China, Turkey, etc. However
The reduction of import duties worsened the position of Russian manufacturers, and
In 1757, a new tariff was developed, strongly protected.

With Catherine II, the turnover of foreign trade increased significantly,
The foreign trade balance was positive.

Development of banking systems.

In the history of Russia, the 18th century became an epoch when banks began to establish as
Composite part of the market system, contributed to the formation of the market
capital. The first banks were created in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna
B1754 This is a merchant bank for issuing loans to Russian merchants under the goods
Of the 6% per annum. Then the noble bank with offices in
St. Petersburg and Moscow. Banks were created treasury. In 1786 instead
They were established by the state borrowed bank for loans secured
Real estate, which contributed to the development of the loan. In credit system
institutions of Russia also included loan and preserved treasons (cash registers),
Created in 1772 to obtain a small loan. In 1775 in large
The provincial cities were open orders of public charity, i.e.
Sentained pawnshops. In general, this system was created on the estate
Principles and was minus. In 1758, a copper bank was organized,
who had banking offices in Moscow and St. Petersburg, however
It lasts not long. In Catherine II, they were issued
Paper money (appliances) and government loans. At the same time with
This Russian government began to resort to external loans.

Strengthening feudal land tenure and dictatorship of the nobility.

In the second half of the 18th century, the line to strengthen feudal land tenurement
And the dictatorship of the nobility was continued by the Russian government.

Providing nobles benefits and privileges that have increased resistance
The serfdom was performed by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Four
Shares in this direction Her Government took in 1754: Decree on
announcement of the distillation of the noble monopoly, the organization of the noble
Bank, the transfer of nobles of government factories of the Urals and general intertime.
Only in the 18th century, the general survey replenished the noble
land tenure by more than 50 million decishes of land.

Another source of noble land tenure and inspection was
Award. The generotes of Catherine II surpassed everything with what was familiar with
The history of the preceding period. Coup participants providing her
Throne, she complained to 18 thousand fortresses and 86 thousand rubles. premium. Targets
Strengthening the Monopoly Rights of the Nobility was subordinate to the Prohibition Decree
Industrialists buy to their enterprises fortress peasants.

The expansion of the ownership of the nobles to the ground was subordinate to the decree of 1782,
Canceled mountain freedom, i.e. right to use ore
Fields of anyone who discovered them. Now the nobleman was announced not
Only the owner of the Earth, but also its subsoil. New privilege nobles
found in the manifesto "On the granting of liberty and freedom of the Russian
nobility. He was published by Peter III in 1762, and then
Confirmed Catherine II.

The humble diploma of the nobility of 1885. Catherine II is conclusing
Passed the privileges of the nobility. The affected estate had special
Personal and property rights and odds. Nobles were released from
Finners and duties. Nicely increased noble land tenure.
The landowners were given state and palace peasants, as well as
Unfinished land. In areas adjacent to St. Petersburg, nobles
Received for the first four decades of the 18th century about a million tentes
Earth. In the second half of the century huge areas of land landlords
They were distributed in the Central Chernozem District and the Middle Volga region. Per
The time of the reign of Ekaterina II distributed nobles more than 800 thousand.
state and palace peasants.

Feudal subsidities of landlords of Russia by the end of the 18th century
Characterized by the following data. In 13 provinces of non-black
Strips 55 percent of peasants were on a monetary lifting and 45
Percent - on the barbecine. Other was a picture in the Black Oil Gubnia: 74
Percentage of landlord peasants carried the barbecine and only 26 percent of peasants
Wrapped the lifts.

Territorial differences in the distribution of lifespans and barbecues in the landlord
The village is explained mainly by the features of the economic
development of certain geographic locations.

The overwhelming part of state peasants already paid at the beginning of the 18th century
Monetary Rent In 1776, states were translated on it
The peasants of Siberia, processing the bitty-tenty arable to this.

The landowner economy gradually became on the way of commercial
production. For sale, first of all bread and other
Agricultural products. General development Commodity monetary
relations in the country pulled into their sphere and peasant farm,
which, although slowly, but it became on the path of small commercial
production. Along with this, the process of decomposition of feudal
relationship, which finds an expression on an increasing comrade of the economy
landowners, translating part of the peasants for the month. All this allows
assume that in the last third of the 18th century, the feudal-serfral system in
Russia enters the strip of crisis.

Growth of the territory. Administrative reform.

During the 18th century, the territory of the country has increased significantly. If in
At the beginning of the century, it was approximately 14 million square meters. Wool, then in 1791 -
About 14.5 million square meters. Loaf, i.e. increased by almost 0.5 million square meters. Wool.
The population of the country has increased much. On the first revision conducted in
1719, the total population was 7.8 million people
Fifth revision, held in 1795, - 37.2 million people, i.e. increased
Almost 2.4 times. With Catherine II BALA carried out wide
Administrative reform. In 1775, the country was divided into 50 provinces,
Instead of the previous 20. The population of the province was from 300 to 400 thousand.
human. In turn, the provinces were divided into lents with the population
20-30 thousand people. All completeness of the administrative and police power
Moved to the provincial board. State revenues were in
The maintenance of the Cassenaya Chamber, and they kept their provincial and county treasury.

Used Books:

"General history. Handbook of the student. " Publisher "AST" 1999.
Novikov S.V., Manykin A.S.

"World History" publishing house "Uniti" 2000. GB Pole, A.N.
Markova.

"Russian history. From early XVIII to end XIX. century »Publisher" AST "
1996 Ed. A.N. Sakharov.

Education is a necessary step in cultural development. "Have a courage to enjoy your own mind!" - so the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) determined the essence of the mindset of his era, which was called the century Enlightenment. After the revival and the Reformation, it was the third spiritual coup, practically completely committed to the medieval system of values.

Enlightenment was a powerful international movement. It was the main content of the inner life of Western Europe in the first three quarters of the XVIII century.

Education is a necessary step in the cultural development of any country, parting with a feudal way of life. In the basics of their enlightenment democratic. The enlightenment is settled for the idea of \u200b\u200bformal law, seeing precisely in him a guarantee of humanism. Education is not tied to a certain chronology. The disintegration of feudal relations in different countries took place at different times. England and Holland were ahead of other European countries, France, Germany followed them.

Enlightenment XVIII century. It was a major phenomenon of European life, and his influence was reflected not only on the mental development of the European society, but also on the comprehensive coverage and criticism of obsolete, preserved from the medieval forms of life. Education entered into the fight against the sides of the former system that did not meet the requirements of our time.

English arquedation. The special role of England in the history of European education was primarily in the fact that she was his homeland and in many ways and pioneer. In the main features, the political program of English enlightenment was formulated by the philosopher John Lokke (1632-1704), who considered the state as a product of a mutual agreement of people. He put forward the moral criteria for human behavior in society. Not civil laws, but the norms of morality that are established "on the hidden and silent agreement" should be, according to Locke, the natural regulator of interpersonal relations.

The constitutional ideas of Locke are largely embodied in the political stroke of England, as it realized the class compromise of the bourgeoisie and the nobility. Proclaimed the highest goal of the happiness of a particular person, and not humanity as a whole, the British enlighteners meant primarily personal prosperity. Locke emphasized: "We are born to light with such abilities and forces in which the opportunity to master almost any thing and which in any case can behave continue that we can imagine: but only the exercise of these forces can inform us the skill and art. In anything to lead us to excellence. " Stressing the importance of the personal creative effort of each person, his knowledge and experience, British enlighteners, as it should not be better caught by the needs of the Society of the XVIII century.

In the XVIII century In England, the old forms of state power were filled with new content. In 1701, the Parliament adopted two documents that were deprived of the possibility of returning to the British throne of the Stuart dynasty. The first document Bill about the throne passed the throne to representatives of the Hannover dynasty. The second document is "the status of the Kingdom Device" - injected parliamentarism - the responsibility of the ministers to parliament. The actual strengthening of the power of the Parliament occurred during the reign of Queen Anna (1665-1714). At the same time, the royal power degraded, and George II. (1683-1760) The king lost the right of a veto against the laws adopted by the Parliament and could not participate in the government meetings. Parliament consisted of two chambers of the chamber of the Lords and the House of Commons. In the struggle of parliament with the king, two political parties took an active part - tori.and vigi, Created in the XVII century.

Within 45 years (from 1714), England was not ruled by the king, and the ministers from the Viga party, protecting the interests of a large bourgeoisie. The situation has changed in 1760 with the arrival of the king power George III (1738-1820), all 60 years of his rule of the ruling party remained Tori, protecting the interests of supporters of absolutism.

Constitutional in essence and parliamentary monarchy established in the UK in the first half of the XVIII century, it was precisely the forerunner of that political system, the establishment of which entailed the strengthening and victory of new capitalist relations.

French enlightenment.The idea of \u200b\u200bthe moral revival of society by political methods - the popular uprising, the populization of wide areas of social life gave a special peculiarity of the French enlightenment, outstanding representatives of which were Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689-1755), Volter. (1634-1778), Denis Didro (1783-1784) and others.

The political views of Rousseau outlined in the composition of "On the public contract", in which the society put forward to the fore, proving that the Company had previously belonged to the authorities that it was handed over to the rulers to enjoy this power in the interests of society. But since the rulers began to abuse the authorities to the detriment of society, Rousseau invites the society to re-take power into his own hands to create a democratic republican state. In such a state, each full member of the Company should be directly involved in managing, legislation and court. Thus, according to Rousseau, civil equality will be achieved.

The main work of Montesquieu "On the spirit of laws" contained the ideas of law and the state, and therefore was relevant for many European monarchs. In it, Montesquieu conducts the idea that the legislation and the state system of each country should adapt to its climatic and soil conditions, as well as to religion, the nature and degree of development of its people. Of the various forms of state reign, he prefers republican, its use in practice considers it possible, provided that they are the same development of all citizens and their readiness to the role of rulers. He had not seen opportunities in modern states for the republican form of government, therefore it stops at the constitutional monarchy, in which the executive authorities belong to the monarch, and legislature - elected people's representatives. The court must be independent of the administration.

In its political views, Voltaire was a monarchist, consisted of friendship and correspondence with many European monarchs. In order for the possession of autocratic power to abuse and arbitrarily, according to Voltaire, the sovereigns should be philosophically formed, surrounded by philosophers and guaranteeing philosophy, which guarantees justice and the usefulness of their orders. Voltaire preached the beginning of humanity and justice, insisted on the fundamental transformation of medieval forms of legal proceedings, at the abolition of torture, called for the abolition of serfdom, to destroy feudal privileges.

The so-called encyclopedists -members of the Philosophy Circle Didro, published from 1751 to 1776. "Encyclopedia of sciences, arts and crafts." They criticized existing views and orders, called for judicial reform, religious freedom, the destruction of the lengthy privileges, the liberation of peasants, people's representation and other democratic rights and freedoms of citizens.

Enlightened absolutism.In the second half of the XVIII century. In connection with the pan-European economic and demographic lift in the ruling circles of European states, the awareness of the need to modernize the economic and political system was increasingly increased. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called enlightened absolutism.

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