The diameter of the ISS orbit. The history of the creation of the ISS.
International Space Station, ISS (English International Space Station, ISS) - piloted multipurpose space research complex.
The creation of the ISS is involved: Russia (Federal Space Agency, Roscosmos); USA (National Aerospace Agency USA, NASA); Japan (Japanese Agency Aerospace Research, JAXA), 18 European countries (European Space Agency, ESA); Canada (Canadian Space Agency, CSA), Brazil (Brazil Space Agency, AEB).
Start of construction - 1998.
The first module is "Zarya".
Completion of construction (presumably) - 2012.
The deadline for the end of the work of the ISS (presumably) - 2020.
Orbit height - 350-460 kilometers from the ground.
Obligation of the orbit - 51.6 degrees.
The ISS makes 16 revolutions per day.
The weight of the station (at the time of construction) - 400 tons (for 2009 - 300 tons).
Interior space (at the time of construction) - 1, 2 thousand cubic meters.
Length (along the main axis, which lined up the main modules) is 44.5 meters.
Height - almost 27.5 meters.
Width (over solar panels) - more than 73 meters.
The ISS was visited by the first space tourists (sent by Roscosmos together with Space Adventures).
In 2007, the flight of the first Malaysian cosmonaut is organized - Sheikha Muzafar Shukor (Muszaphar Shukor).
The cost of building ICS by 2009 amounted to 100 billion dollars.
Flight Management:
the Russian segment is carried out from the TsUP-M (Zup-Moscow, the city of Korolev, Russia);
the American segment is from the Central Committee (Zup-Houston, Houston City, USA).
The work of the MCS laboratory modules are monitored:
european "Columbus" - the Office of the European Space Agency (the city of Oberpaffenhofen, Germany);
japanese "Kibo" - the PC of the Japanese Agency Agency Aerospace Research (Tsukuba, Japan).
Flight of the European Automatic Cargo Ship ATV "Jules Verne" ("Jules Verne"), designed to supply the ISS, together with the Central Commissions of the European Space Agency (the city of Toulouse, France).
The technical coordination of work on the Russian segment of the ISS and its integration with the American segment is carried out by the Council of the main designers under the leadership of the President, the General Designer of the RCC "Energy". S.P. Queen, Academician RAS Y.P. Semenova.
Guide to the preparation and implementation of the elements of the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by an interstate commission to ensure flights and operation of orbital manned complexes.
According to the existing international agreement, each participant of the project belongs to its segments on the ISS.
The leading organization on the creation of the Russian segment and its integration with the American segment is the RKK "Energy". S.P. Queen, and in the American segment - the company "Boeing" ("Boeing").
About 200 organizations are involved in the manufacture of elements of the Russian segment, including: Russian Academy sciences; Factory of Experimental Mechanical Engineering RKK "Energy" them. S.P. Queen; Rocket and Space Plant GKNPC them. M.V. Khrunichev; GNP RCC "TsSKB-Progress"; CB of general engineering; Rye of cosmic instrument making; Recent instruments; RSyi CPK them. Yu.A. Gagarin.
Russian segment: Star service module; functional freight block "Zarya"; Docking compartment "Pierce".
American segment: UNITY nodular module ("Unity"); Quest Gateway Module ("Quest"); Laboratory Module "Destiny" ("Destiny").
Canada created for the ISS on the LAB module a manipulator - 17.6-meter hand-robot "Canadarm" ("Canadarm").
Italy supplies the so-called Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules, MPLM on the ISS (Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules, MPLM). By 2009, they were made three: "Leonardo", "Raphaello", "Donatello" ("Leonardo", "Raffaello", "donatello"). These are large cylinders (6.4 x 4.6 meters) with a docking node. An empty logistics module weighs 4.5 tons, it can be downloaded to 10 tons of equipment for experiments and consumables.
The delivery of people to the station provides Russian "unions" and American shuttles (reusable clamps); Loads deliver Russian "progress" and American shuttles.
Japan has created its first scientific orbital laboratory, which has become the largest MCS module, "Kibo" (translated from the Japanese "Nadezhda", an international abbreviation - JEM, Japanese Experiment Module).
By order of the European Space Agency, the Consortium of European Aerospace Companies was made by the Columbus Research Module. It is intended for physical, material science, medical and biological and other experiments in the absence of gravity. By order of ESA, the Harmony module ("Harmony") was made, which connects the "Cybo" and "Columbus" modules, and also ensures their power supply and data exchange.
Additional modules and devices are also made on the ISS: the root segment and girodine module on the node-1 (Node 1); Energy module (SS section of AC) on Z1; mobile service system; device for moving equipment and crew; device "b" system of moving equipment and crew; Farms S0, S1, P1, P3 / P4, P5, S3 / S4, S5, S6.
All ISS laboratory modules have standardized stands for installing blocks with experimental equipment. Over time, the ISS will turn back to new nodes and modules: the Russian segment should be replenished with a scientific and energy platform, a multi-purpose research module "Enterprise" ("Enterprise") and the second functional freight block (FGB-2). The "Dome" assembly ("Cupola") will be mounted on the Node-3 module (NODE 3). This dome with a number of very large portholes through which the inhabitants of the station, as in the theater, will be able to observe the arrival of ships and control the work of their colleagues in open space.
The history of the creation of the ISS.
Work at the International Space Station began in 1993.
Russia proposed the United States to combine efforts to carry out manned programs. By the time Russia had a 25-year history of the operation of the Salute and World orbital stations, and there was also an invaluable experience in conducting long flights, research and developed space infrastructure. But by 1991 the country was in a serious economic situation. At the same time, financial difficulties were also experienced creators of the Freeda orbital station (USA).
March 15, 1993 General Director of the Agency Roskosmos A Yu.N. Copteis and General Designer NPO "Energia" Yu.P. Semenov turned to the head of the NASA Goldin with a proposal to create an international space station.
September 2, 1993 Chairman of the Government Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin and Vice President of the United States Albert Mountains signed a "joint statement on cooperation in space", which provided for the creation of a joint station. On November 1, 1993, a detailed plan of work on the International Space Station was signed, and in June 1994 - a contract between NASA and Roskosmos Agencies "On the supply and services for the Mir station and the International Space Station."
The initial stage of construction provides for the creation of a functionally completed structure of a station from a limited number of modules. The first to the orbit was removed by the "Proton-K" launch vehicle "Dawn" function and freight block (1998), made in Russia. The second is delivered by the shuttle ship and docked with the American docking module of Knot-1 - "Uniti" (December 1998). The third of the Russian service module "Star" (2000), which provides station management, crew life support, station orientation and orbit correction. The fourth is the American laboratory module "Destini" (2001).
The first main crew of the ISS, arriving at the station on November 2, 2000 on the ship "Union TM-31": William Shepherd (USA), Commander of the ISS, Soyuz-TM-31 ships; Sergey Krikalov (Russia), Soyuz-TM-31 ships flight engineer; Yuri Gyzenko (Russia), Pilot ISS, commander of the ship "Union TM-31".
The duration of the MKS-1 crew flight was about four months. His return to Earth was carried out by the American Space Shuttle ship, which delivered the crew of the second major expedition to the ISS. The ship "Union TM-31" remained as part of the ISS for six months and served as a rescuer ship for a crew operating on its board.
In 2001, the P6 energy module was installed on the root segment Z1, the Destiny Laboratory Module was delivered to the orbit, the Quest Camera, the Pier's docking compartment, two cargo telescopic arrows, remote manipulator. In 2002, the station was replenished with three fermented structures (S0, S1, P6), two of which are equipped with transporting devices to move the remote manipulator and astronauts during operation in open space.
The construction of the ISS was suspended in connection with the catastrophe of the American ship "Columbia" that occurred on February 1, 2003, and in 2006, construction works were resumed.
In 2001 and twice in 2007, the refusal to work computers in Russian and American segments was recorded. In 2006, a smoke occurred in the Russian segment of the station. In the fall of 2007, the crew of the station spent repair work solar battery.
New sections of solar panels were delivered to the station. At the end of 2007, the ISS was replenished with two hermetic modules. In October, the Shuttle "Discovery" STS-120 brings the connecting module-2 "harmony" connecting module into orbit, which became the main jettle for shuttles.
The European Laboratory Module "Columbus" was led into orbit on the Atlantis ship STS-122 and with the help of a manipulator of this ship put at his regular place (February 2008). The ISS was then introduced into the ISS Japanese module "Kibo" (June 2008), his first element was delivered to the ISS shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123 (March 2008).
Perspectives MKS.
According to some pessimistic experts, the ISS is in vain time and money. They believe that the station is not yet built, but already outdated.
However, in the implementation of the long-term program of space flights to the moon or to Mars, humanity without the ISS cannot do.
Since 2009, the permanent crew of the ISS will be increased to 9 people, the number of experiments will increase. Russia has planned to hold a 331 experiment on the ISS in the coming years. European Space Agency (ESA) and its partners have already built a new transporter ship - Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), which will be displayed on the basic orbit (300 kilometers height) Ariane-5 ES ATV rocket, from where ATV will go to orbit due to its engines ISS (400 kilometers above Earth). The useful load of this automatic ship with a length of 10.3 meters and a diameter of 4.5 meters is 7.5 tons. It will be experimental equipment, food, and air, and water for the crew of the ISS. The first of the ATV series (September 2008) received the name "Jules Verne"). After docking from the ISS in automatic mode, ATV can work in its composition half a year, after which the ship is loaded with garbage and in the controlled mode flooded in the Pacific Ocean. ATV is planned to be launched once a year, and in all of them will be built at least 7. The Japanese automatic truck H-II "Transfer Vehicle" (HTV) will be connected to the ISS program (HTV), displayed in the orbit of the Japanese carrier rocket H-IIB, which is still developing now . Full weight HTV will be 16.5 tons, of which 6 tons - useful load for the station. He will be able to stay dashed to the ISS to one month.
Outdated shuttles will be removed from flights in 2010, and the new generation will appear no earlier than 2014-2015.
By 2010, Russian manned "unions" will be upgraded: first of all, electronic control systems and communication will be replaced, which will increase the payload of the ship by reducing the weight of electronic equipment. The updated "Union" will be able to be located in the station for almost a year. The Russian side will be built by the Clipper ship (according to plan the first test piloted flight in orbit - 2014, commissioning - 2016). This six-seater cruise shuttle for reusable use is conceived in two versions: with a household compartment (ABO) or motor compartment (up to). For the "clipper", which rose into space for a relatively low orbit, will fly the interboronal tug of "ferry". "Ferry" - a new development designed to change the freight "progress" over time. This tug must tighten with a low reference orbit to the ISS orbit so-called "containers", cargo "barrels" with a minimum of equipment (4-13 tons of cargo), deposited into space with the help of "unions" or "protons". The "ferry" has two docking nodes: one for the container, the second - for mooring to the ISS. After the container is output to the ferry orbit, due to its motor installation, it goes down to it, it is joined with it and raises it to the ISS. And after the unloading of the container, "steam" descends it to a lower orbit, where he is uncovered and independently slows down to burn in the atmosphere. The tug will also leave to wait for the new container to deliver it to the ISS.
Official website of the RKK "Energia": http://www.energia.ru/rus/iss/iss.html
Official site of the Boeing Corporation (Boeing): http://www.boeing.com
Official website of the Flight Management Center: http://www.mcc.rsa.ru
Official website of the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA): http://www.nasa.gov
Official site of the European Space Agency (ESA): http://www.esa.int/esacp/index.html
Official website of the Japanese Agency Agency Aerospace Research: http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html
Official website of the Canadian Space Agency (CSA): http://www.space.gc.ca/index.html
Official site of Brazil Space Agency (AEB):
2014-09-11. NASA announced plans to launch six installations to orbit, which will conduct regular monitoring ground surface . These instruments Americans intend to send to the International Space Station (ISS) until the end of the second decade of the XXI century. On them, according to experts, the most modern equipment will be installed. According to scientists, the location of the ISS in orbit opens up great advantages to monitor the planet. The first installation, ISS-Rapidscat will be sent to the ISS using Spacex private company not earlier than September 19, 2014. The sensor is collected on the outside of the station. It is intended for observing the ocean winds, weather forecasting and hurricanes. The ISS-Rapidscat is built by the laboratory of reactive movement in Pasadena (California). The second device, CATS (Cloud-Aerosol Transport System), is a laser tool that is designed to monitor the clouds and measure the content of aerosols, smoke, dust and pollutant particles in them. These data is necessary for understanding how human activity (primarily burning hydrocarbons) affects the environment. It is expected that Spacex will send it to the ISS in December 2014. Cats gathered at the center of Goddard Space Flights in Greenbelte (Maryland). Launches ISS-Rapidscat and CATS along with sending in July 2014 to the orbit of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 probe, designed to study carbon content in the planet's atmosphere, make 2014 the most tense in the NASA Earth research program over the past ten years. Two other installations Agency is going to send to the ISS by 2016. One of them, Sage III (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III), will measure the content of aerosols, ozone, water vapor and other connections in the upper layers of the atmosphere. This is necessary to control the processes of global warming, in particular, for ozone holes above the Earth. The Sage III device is designed in the Lengley Nasa Research Center in Hampton (Virginia) and assembled by Ball Aerospace in Boulder (Colorado). In the work of the previous mission of Sage III - METEOR-3M - participated Roscosmos. With the help of another device that will be launched into orbit in 2016, the LIG sensor (Lightning Imaging Sensor) is detected, the coordinates of the lightning over the tropical and medium latitudes of the globe will be detected. The device will have a connection with ground services to coordinate their work. The fifth device, GEDI (Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation), with the help of a laser will explore the forests and conduct observations over carbon balance in them. Experts note that large amounts of energy may be required for the laser operation. GEDI is designed by scientists from Maryland University in College Park. The sixth device - ECOSTRESS (Ecosystem SpaBorne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station) - is a thermal imaging spectrometer. The device is designed to study the processes of water cycle in nature. The device was created by specialists of the laboratory of reactive movement.The International Space Station is the result of the collaboration of specialists of a number of areas from sixteen countries of the world (Russia, USA, Canada, Japan, the states entering the European Commonwealth). The grand project, which in 2013 noted the fifteen years began to start its implementation, embodies in itself all the achievements of the technical thought of modernity. An international space station ensures an impressive part of the material about the Middle and Far Cosmos and some earthly phenomena and processes of scientists. The ISS, however, was built not in one day, her creation was preceded by almost thirty years old history of astronautics.
How it all began
The predecessors of the ISS were the undeniable championship in their creation, Soviet techniques and engineers were occupied. Work on the project "Almaz" began at the end of 1964. Scientists worked on an aerobated orbital station, on which 2-3 astronauts could be. It was assumed that the "diamond" would last for two years and all this time will be used for research. According to the project, the main part of the complex was the OPS - an orbital manned station. It housed the working areas of the crew members, as well as the household compartment. OPS was equipped with two hatches to enter outdoor cosmos and discharge to land special capsules with information, as well as a passive docking unit.
The efficiency of the station is largely determined by its energy reserves. The developers of the "diamond" found a way to increase them repeatedly. Transport ships of supply (TKS) were engaged in the delivery of astronauts and various cargo to the station. In addition, they were equipped with an active docking system, a powerful energy resource, a magnificent traffic control system. TKS was capable of supplying a station for a long time, as well as manage the entire complex. All subsequent similar projects, including the International Space Station, were created using the same method of saving OPS resources.
First
Rivalry from the United States forced Soviet scientists and engineers to work as quickly as possible, therefore, in the shortest possible time, another orbital station was created - "Salute". She was taken to space in April 1971. The base of the station is the so-called working compartment, which includes two cylinders, small and large. Inside the smaller diameter was located control, sleeping places and recreation areas, storage and adoption of food. A greater cylinder is a container of scientific equipment, simulators, without any such flight, and there is also a shower cabin and isolated from the rest of the room toilet.
Each next "salute" was different from the previous one: equipped with the latest equipment, had constructive features that correspond to the development of technology and knowledge of the time. These orbital stations laid the beginning of a new era of the study of cosmic and earthly processes. "Salutes" were the base on which a large number of research was conducted in the field of medicine, physics, industry and agriculture. It is difficult to overestimate and experience the use of the orbital station, which was successfully applied during the operation of the next manned complex.
"Peace"
Durable was the process of accumulating experience and knowledge, which was the result of which the International Space Station was. "Peace" - a modular manned complex - the next stage. It was tested on it the so-called block principle of creating a station, when for some time the main part of it is increasing its technical and research power through the attached new modules. It subsequently "borrowed" the International Space Station. The "world" became a sample of the technical and engineering skill of our country and actually provided it with one of the leading roles in the creation of the ISS.
Work on the construction of the station began in 1979, and it was delivered to orbit on February 20, 1986. During the entire time of the "World" on it, various studies were conducted. The required equipment was delivered as part of additional modules. The World Station allowed scientists, engineers and researchers to acquire invaluable experience in using this scale. In addition, it has become a place of peaceful international cooperation: in 1992, an agreement on cooperation in space was signed between Russia and the United States. It is actually beginning to be implemented in 1995, when the American "Shuttle" went to the Mir station.
Completion of flight
The Mir Station has become a place of various studies. It was analyzed here, and data in the field of biology and astrophysics, space technology and medicine, geophysics and biotechnology were specified and opened.
The station has completed its existence in 2001. The reason for the decision to flood it was the development of an energy resource, as well as some accidents. There were various versions of the salvation of the object, but they were not adopted, and in March 2001 the Mir station was immersed in the Pacific Water.
Creation of the International Space Station: Preparatory Stage
The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an ISS has arisen at the time when the thoughts to flood the "world" did not even occur to anyone. The indirect cause of the station was the political and financial crisis in our country and economic problems in the United States. Both powers realized their inability alone cope with the task of creating an orbital station. At the beginning of the nineties, an agreement on cooperation was signed, one of whose items was an international space station. The ISS as a project united not only Russia and the United States, but also, as already noted, another fourteen countries. Simultaneously with the definition of participants, the ISS project was approved: the station will consist of two integrated blocks, American and Russian, and in orbit modularly similar to the "world".
"Zarya"
The First International Space Station began its existence in orbit in 1998. On November 20, with the help of the "Proton" rocket, a functional-cargo unit of the Russian production "Zarya" was launched. He became the first ISS segment. Structurally, it was similar to some of the Mir station modules. Interestingly, the American side offered to build an ISS directly in orbit, and only the experience of Russian colleagues and an example of the "world" bowed them towards the modular method.
Inside "Zarya" is equipped with various appliances and equipment, docking, power supply, control. An impressive part of the equipment, including fuel tanks, radiators, chambers and solar panels are placed on the outer part of the module. All external elements are protected from meteorites with special screens.
Module for module
On December 5, 1998, the Shuttle "Indebor" with the American docking module "Uniti" went to Zare. Two days later, Uniti was docked to "Zare". Further, the International Space Station "acquired" the "Star" service module, which was also engaged in Russia. "Star" was an upgraded basic block of the Mir station.
The docking of the new module occurred on July 26, 2000. From this point on, the "star" has taken on the management of the ISS, as well as all life support systems, has become a permanent stay of the cosmonaut team at the station.
Transition to manned mode
The first crew of the International Space Station was delivered by the Soyuz TM-31 ship on November 2, 2000. His part included V. Shepherd - the Commander of the Expedition, Yu. Gidzenko - Pilot, - Fartinener. From this point on, a new station of the station began: it moved into the manned mode.
The composition of the second expedition: James Voste and Susan Halms. She replaced the first crew in early March 2001.
And earthly phenomena
The International Space Station is a venue for a variety of task of each crew consists in collecting data on some of the cosmic processes, studying the properties of certain substances in conditions of weightlessness and so on. Scientific studies that are conducted on the ISS can be submitted as a generalized list:
- monitoring various remote space objects;
- study of cosmic rays;
- observation of land, including the study of atmospheric phenomena;
- study of the peculiarities of physical and bioprocesses in conditions of weightlessness;
- tests of new materials and technologies in open space conditions;
- medical studies, including the creation of new drugs, testing diagnostic methods under weightlessness;
- production of semiconductor materials.
Future
Like any other object exposed to such a large load and so intensely operated, the ISS will sooner or later cease to function at the required level. It was originally assumed that her "shelf life" would end in 2016, that is, the station was given only 15 years. However, since the first months of its operation, the assumptions began to sound that this time was somewhat understated. Today, hopes are expressed that the International Space Station will work until 2020. Then, probably, she is waiting for the same fate as the station "Peace": the ISS will be flooded in the waters of the Pacific Ocean.
Today, the international space station, the photo of which are presented in the article, successfully continues to circle in orbit around our planet. Periodically, the media can be found mentioned new studies on board the station. The ISS is the only object of space tourism: only at the end of 2012, it was visited by eight amateur astronauts.
It can be assumed that such a type of entertainment will only gain strength, since the land from the space is the type of fascinating. And no photo does not come in comparison with the possibility of seeing such beauty from the porthole of the International Space Station.
MKC composition (Zarya - Columbus)
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MKS configuration
Function and freight block "Zarya"
The deployment of the ISS began starting on November 20, 1998 (09:40:00 DMV) with the help of the Russian missile carrier "Proton" of the Functional and Food Block (FGB) "Zarya", also created in Russia.
Functional and freight block "Zarya" is the first element of the International Space Station (ISS). It is designed and manufactured by GKNPC named after M.V. Khrunichev (Moscow, Russia) in accordance with the contract concluded with the general subcontractor for the ISS project - Boeing Company (Houston, Texas, USA). From this module begins the assembly of the ISS in the near-earth orbit. At the initial stage of assembly, the FGB provides flight control of modules, power supply, communication, reception, storage and fuel pumping.
Scheme of the functionally and freight block "Zarya"
| Parameter | Value |
| Mass on orbit | 20260 kg |
| Corps length | 12990 mm |
| Maximum diameter | 4100 mm |
| Volume of sealed compartments | 71.5 cubic meters |
| Scope of solar panels | 24400 mm |
| 28 sq.m. | |
| Guaranteed average power power supply voltage 28 V | 3 kW |
| Power power supply of the American segment | up to 2 kW |
| Mass refilled fuels | up to 6100 kg |
| Height of the working orbit | 350-500 km |
| 15 years |
The FGB layout includes duty and cargo compartment (PGO) and a hermetic adapter (GA), designed to place onboard systems that provide mechanical docking with other MCS modules and arriving on the ISS ships. Ga is separated from the Pgo of hermetic spherical bulkhead, in which there is a hatch with a diameter of 800 mm. On the outer surface of the ha there is a special node for the mechanical capture of the FGB manipulator "Shuttle". The hermetic volume of the PGO is 64.5 cubic meters, ha - 7.0 cubic meters. The internal space of the PGO and GA is divided into two zones: instrument and living. In the dash area placed blocks of onboard systems. The living area is designed for the crew. It contains elements of control and control systems on the onboard complex, as well as emergency alerts and warnings. The dashboard is separated from the residential area of \u200b\u200bthe interior panels.
The PGO is functionally divided into three compartments: PGB - 2 is the conical section of the FGB, Pgo-Z - adjacent to the Cylindrical section, Pgo-1 is the cylindrical section between the Pgo-2 and Pgoz.
Connecting module "Uniti"
The first element of the International Space Station, the Node 1 module ("First Nodes"), is also called Unity ("Unity" or "Unity").
The Node 1 module was manufactured at The Boeing Co. In Changtsville (Alabama).
The module has more than 50,000 parts, 216 pipelines of pumping liquids and gases, 121 internal and outdoor cable with a total length of about 10 km.
The module is delivered and installed by the crew of the Shuttle Endeavor (STS-88) on December 7, 1998. The crew composition: Commander Robert Kaban, Pilot Frederick Sturko, Specialists of the flight of Jerry Ross, Nancy Curry, James Newman and Sergey Krikal.
Module "Unity" - made of aluminum Cylindrical design with six hatches to connect other components of the station - four of which (radial) are closed with hatches of the openings with frames, and two end-equipped with locks to which the docking adapters having two axial docking adapters are attached knot., forms a corridor connecting residential and work premises of the International Space Station. This node, 5.49 m long and a diameter of 4.58 m, is connected to the functional freight block "Zarya".
In addition to connecting to the "Zarya" module, this node serves as a corridor connecting the American laboratory module, an American dressed module (residential compartments) and an air gateway.
Through the Unity module, important systems and communications are undergoing, such as pipelines for supplying liquids, gases, medium control tools, livelihood systems, power supply and data transmission.
The UNITY Cosmic Center has been equipped with two hermetic PMA docking adapters (pressurized mating adapter) having a type of asymmetric conical crowns. The PMA-1 adapter will ensure the docking of the American and Russian components of the station, PMA-2 - docking to the Space Shuttle ships. The adapters contain computers that provide the UNITY control and management functions, as well as data transfer, voice information and video communication with a Houston PC at the first stages of MCS installation, complementing Russian communication systems installed in the "Zarya" module. The elements of the adapters are built at the company Boeing in Chhantington Beach, California.
Unity with two adapters in the start-up configuration has a length of 10.98 m and a mass of about 11,500 kg.
The design and manufacture of the UNITY module cost about $ 300 million.
Service Module "Star"
The service module (cm) "Star" was removed to the near-earth orbit with a proton carrier 12.07.2000. (07:56:36 DMV) and 07/26/2000. Digitized to the Functional Truck (FGB) of the ISS.
Constructively, see "Star" consists of four compartments: three sealed - transition compartments (PHO), an operating compartment (PO) and an intermediate chamber (PRC), as well as a leakage aggregate compartment (AO), which contains the combined motor set (ODU). The body of hermetic compartments is made of aluminum-magnesium alloy and is a welded structure consisting of cylindrical, conical and spherical blocks.
The transition compartment is designed to ensure the transition of crew members between the CM and other MCS modules. It also serves as a gateway compartment when the crew members are released into open space, for which there is a pressure reset valve on the side lid.
In the form of PHO, it is a combination of a sphere with a diameter of 2.2 m and a truncated cone with a base diameters of 1.35 m and 1.9 m. The length of PHO is 2.78 m, hermetic volume - 6.85 m3. The conical part (large diameter) is attached to PO. Three hybrid passive docking units of the SSVP-M G8000 (one axial and two side) are installed on the spherical part of PHO. The PHO "Zarya" is joined by the axial assembly. At the top node, PHO is planned to install a scientific and energy platform (NEP). To the lower docking unit, the PHO must first arrive the docking compartment number 1, and then the universal docking module (USM).
Main technical characteristics
| Parameter | Value |
| Docking knots | 4 things. |
| Portholes | 13 pcs. |
| Mass module at the removal stage | 22776 kg |
| Mass in orbit after separation from pH | 20295 kg |
| Module dimensions: | |
| length with a fairing and intermediate compartment | 15.95 M. |
| length without a fairing and intermediate compartment | 12.62 M. |
| corps length | 13.11 M. |
| width with opened solar panel | 29.73 M. |
| maximum diameter | 4.35 M. |
| volume of sealed compartments | 89.0 m3. |
| internal volume with equipment | 75,0 m3. |
| habitat crew | 46.7 m3 |
| Ensuring the livelihoods of the crew | up to 6 people |
| Scope of solar panels | 29.73 M. |
| Square photoelectric elements | 76 m2 |
| Maximum output power of solar panels | 13.8 kW |
| Duration of functioning in orbit | 15 years |
| Power supply system: | |
| working voltage in | 28 |
| solar Power, kW | 10 |
| Movement Installation: | |
| march engines, kgf | 2?312 |
| orientation engines, kgf | 32?13,3 |
| oxidizer mass (nitrogen tetroxide), kg | 558 |
| fuel mass (NDMG), kg | 302 |
Main functions:
- ensuring the working conditions and recreation of the crew;
- managing the work of the main parts of the complex;
- supply of electricity complex;
- bilateral crew radio with ground control complex (NKU);
- reception and transfer of television information;
- transmission of telemetry information on the status of crew and onboard systems;
- receiving on board information on management;
- orientation of the complex relative to the center of mass;
- correction of the orbit complex;
- rapid and docking other objects of the complex;
- maintaining a given temperature and humidity regime of residential volume, structural elements and equipment;
- exit B. open space cosmonauts, maintenance of maintenance and repair of the external surface of the station;
- conducting scientific and applied research and experiments using the delivered target equipment;
- ability to carry out a bilateral onboard connection of all modules of the Alpha complex.
On the outer surface of PHO, there are brackets on which the handrails are fixed, three sets of antennas (AR-VKA, 2AR-VKA and 4AO-VKA) system of the course for three docking nodes, connecting targets, units Page, refueling unit, telecalers, onboard Lights and other equipment. The outer surface is closed with EVTI panels and counter-timer screens. There are four portholes in Po.
The working compartment is designed to accommodate the main part of the onboard systems and equipment cm, for the life and operation of the crew.
The PO body consists of two cylinders of different diameters (2.9 m and 4.1 m) interconnected by a conical adapter. The length of the cylinder of a small diameter is 3.5 m, large - 2.9 m. Front and rear bottom - spherical. The total length of RO is 7.7 m, hermetic volume with equipment - 75.0 m3, the habitat of the crew is 35.1 m3. The interior panels separate the living area from the dashboard, as well as from the PO case.
PO has 8 portholes.
Road residential premises are equipped with a crew of the crew. In the zone of small diameter, the center is the central station of station control with control blocks and emergency-warning consoles. In the large diameter zone, there are two personal cabins (1.2 m3 each), a sanitary compartment with a washbasin and an assessing device (1.2 m3), a kitchen with a freezer refrigerator, a desktop with fixing facilities, medical equipment, exercise equipment for exercise, small Sliding chamber for separating containers with waste and small ka.
Outside, the RO body is closed with a multilayer screen-vacuum insulation (EVTI). The cylindrical parts are set radiators that also perform the functions of anti-selector screens. Plots unprotected areas are closed by carbonted cellular design screens.
On the outer surface of the RO, the handrails are installed, which crew members can use to move and fix during operation in open space.
Outside the small diameter of PO installed motion control system and navigation system sensors (vessel) for orientation by the sun and earth, four sensors of the Sat orientation system system and other equipment.
The intermediate camera is designed to ensure the transition of cosmonauts between the CM and the Soyuz or Progress ships, docked to the feed docking unit.
The PPC in form represents a cylinder with a diameter of 2.0 m and a length of 2.34 m. Internal volume - 7.0 m3.
The PP is equipped with one passive docking unit located along the longitudinal axis, see The node is designed for docking of cargo and transport ships, including Russian ships "Union TM", "Union of TMA", "Progress M" and "Progress M2", as well as the European automatic ATV ship. For external observation in the PPC there are two portholes, and the camera is enshrined on the outside.
The aggregate compartment is designed to place the aggregates of the combined motor installation (ODU).
The AO has a cylindrical shape, from the end closes the bottom screen from EVTI. The outer surface of the AO is closed by anti-empty protective casing and ejti. On the outer surface, handrails and antennas are installed, there are hatches for servicing equipment located inside JSC.
On the feed of JSC there are two corrective engines, and on the side surface - four blocks of orientation engines. Outside, a rod with a sharply directed antenna (it) onboard radiotechnical system "LIRA" is fixed on the backspinge floor of the AO. In addition, on the housing of JSC, there are three antennas of the course system, four antennas of the radio control system and communication, two television system antennas, six antennas of the telegraph telegraph system, the antenna of the orbit radiocontrol equipment.
Also, the vessel sensors for the orientation of the Sun, the sensors of the Sat orientation system, onboard lights, etc. are fixed.
Internal layout of the service module:
1 - transition compartment; 2 - transitional hatch; 3 - docking equipment in manual mode; 4 - gas masks; 5 - atmospheric cleaning blocks; 6 - solid oxygen solid generators; 7 - cabin; 8 - compartment of the sanitary device; 9 - intermediate camera; 10 - transitional hatch; 11 - fire extinguisher; 12 - aggregate compartment; 13 - the place of installation of the running track; 14 - dust collector; 15 - table; 16 - Place of installation of a cyergometer; 17 - portholes; 18 - Central Office Post.
Composition of service equipment, see Star:
the onboard control complex in the composition:
- motion control systems (Court);
- onboard computing system;
- onboard radio complex;
- Systems of onboard measurements;
- control systems of the onboard complex (subk);
- equipment of teleoperator management mode (Tora);
power system (PEP);
combined motor installation (ODU);
system for the provision of thermal regimes (sotom);
vital activity system (coolant);
medical facilities.
Laboratory Module "Destini"
On February 9, 2001, the crew of the spacecraft Shattl Atlantis STS-98 delivered and dashed to the station Laboratory Module "Destini" ("Fate").
The American Scientific Module "Destini" consists of three cylindrical sections and two end-end cut-off cones that contain hermetic hatches used by the crew to enter the module and exit. Destiny is docked to the front docking unit of the Unit module.
Scientific and accessories inside the Destiny module mounted in standard ISPR payload units (International Standard Phaload Racks). Total Destini contains 23 ISPR Block - six on the right, on the left side and the ceiling, and five on the floor.
Destini has a livelihood system that provides power supply, air purification, as well as temperature and humidity control in the module.
In a hermetically module, astronauts can perform research in various areas of scientific knowledge: in medicine, technology, biotechnology, physics, material science, and learning land.
The module is made by the American Boeing Company.
Universal Camera Camera "Quest"
The universal locking chamber "Quest" was delivered to the ISS spacecraft "Atlantis" STS-104 on July 15, 2001 and using the remote manipulator of the Canadarm 2 station was removed from the cargo compartment of Atlantis, transferred and docked to the American wharf Module Node-1 "Uniti".
The universal gateway Camera "Quest" is designed to provide exits in open space of the crews of the ISS using both American SPACES and Russian Eagle Spacks.
Before installing this gateway chamber, outputs into open space were made either through the transition compartment (PHO) of the service module "Star" (in Russian Spawands), or through Space Shuttle (in American Spa Baddras).
After installing and enabling the working condition, the gateway chamber has become one of the main systems to ensure the exit to open space and return to the ISS and allowed you to apply any of the existing system of space systems or both at the same time.
Main technical characteristics
The slouch chamber is a sealed module consisting of two main compartments (docked by its ends with the help of a connecting partition and hatch): the crew compartment through which astronauts come out of the ISS into open space, and the equipment compartment, where the units and sweeps are stored for ensuring the ECD, as well as so-called units for night "flushing", which are used on the night before entering outdoor space for washing out nitrogen from the blood of astronaut during the reduction of atmospheric pressure. This procedure avoids the manifestation of signs of decompression after the refund of the cosmonaut from the open space and the supervision of the compartment.
Crew compartment
height - 2565 mm.
external diameter - 1996 mm.
sealed volume - 4.25 cubic meters. m.
Basic equipment:
hatch to enter outdoor space with a diameter of 1016 mm;
slide control panel.
Equipment compartment
Basic specifications:
length - 2962 mm.
external diameter - 4445 mm.
sealed volume - 29.75 cubic meters. m.
Basic equipment:
hermoluk to switch to equipment compartment;
hermolyuk to go to the ISS
two standard racks with service systems;
system of Systems and Debugging Equipment for ECD;
pump for pumping atmosphere;
interface connectors panel;
The crew compartment is a recycled external gateway chamber of the Space Shuttle ship. It is equipped with a lighting system, outdoor handrails and UIA interface connectors for connecting security systems. UIA connectors are located on one of the walls of the crew and are designed to supply water, removal of liquid waste and oxygen supply. The connectors are also used to ensure the connection and power supply of the Spacets and can serve two squares simultaneously (both Russian and American).
Before opening the hatch of the crew compartment to enter outdoor space, the pressure in the compartment decreases first up to 0.2 atm, and then to zero.
The atmosphere of pure oxygen is maintained inside the square at a pressure of 0.3 atm for the American Skafandra and 0.4 atm for Russian.
Reduced pressure is required to ensure sufficient mobility of the Spa. At higher pressures, the spacesuit becomes rigid, and it is difficult to work in a long time.
The equipment compartment is equipped with service systems for performing operations for managing and withdrawing spaces, as well as for periodic work on their maintenance.
In the equipment compartment, there are devices for maintaining the atmosphere inside the compartment, batteries, power supply system and other providing systems.
The Quest module can provide an air environment with a reduced nitrogen content in which astronauts can "sleep" before entering outdoor space, due to which their blood flow is cleaned of excessive nitrogen content, which prevents the caisson disease while working in space with air saturated oxygen. , and after work, when changing pressure ambient (Pressure in Russian Eagle Speakers - 0.4 atm, in American EMU - 0.3 atm). Previously, to prepare for space exits to clean the body tissues from nitrogen, a method was used in which people inhaled clean oxygen for several hours before going out.
In April 2006, the Commander of the ISS-12 Expedition, William MacArthur, and the ISS-13 Expeditionsman Jeffrey Williams, checked new method Preparations for exits into space, "overgoing" in this way, in the gateway. The pressure in the chamber was reduced from normal - 1 atm. (101 kilopascals or 14.7 pounds per square inch), up to 0.69 atm. (70 kPa or 10.2 PSI). Due to the mistake of the PC employee, the crew was awakened four hours ahead of the deadline, and nevertheless the test was counted successfully passed. After that, this method was used by the American side on permanent basis Before entering space.
The "Quest" module was needed by the American side, because their spacecraft did not correspond to the parameters of Russian gateway chambers - had other components, other settings and other connecting fasteners. Before installing the "quest", the exits into space could be carried out from the gateway compartment of the "Star" module only in the Eagle Speakers. American Emu. Could be used to go into space only during the junction of their shuttle to the ISS. In the future, the connection of the Pierce module added another option of using "Orlanes".
The module was attached on July 14, 2001 by the STS-104 expedition. It was installed on the right docking port of the Unity module to a single drainage mechanism (eng. CBM.).
The module contains the equipment and is designed to work with both types of spaces, but at present (information as of 2006!) It is capable of functioning only with the American side, because the equipment needed to work with Russian space costumes has not yet been launched. As a result, when the ISS-9 expedition had problems with American skaandras, they had to make their way to their workplace by the neighboring way.
On February 21, 2005, due to the malfunction of the Quest module, caused by the media reported in the rust gateway, the astronauts temporarily extended to space through the "Star" module
Docking compartment "Pierce"
The docking compartment (CO) "Pierce", which is an element of the Russian segment of the ISS, is launched as part of a specialized module cargo ship (GKM) "Progress M-CO1" on September 15, 2001. On September 17, 2001, GKM "Progress M-CO1" docked with the International Space Station.
The docking compartment "Pierce" is designed and manufactured in the RCC "Energy" and has a dual purpose. It can be used as a locking compartment for outputs into open space of two crew members and serves as an additional port for docking from the ISS of manned vehicles of the TM TM type and automatic cargo ships of the progress M type.
In addition, it provides the ability to refuel the PC PC tanks with fuel components delivered on freight transport ships.
Main technical characteristics
| Parameter | Value |
| Weight at startup, kg | 4350 |
| Mass in orbit, kg | 3580 |
| Backup mass of delivered goods, kg | 800 |
| Height of orbit when assembling, km | 350-410 |
| Working height of orbits, km | 410-460 |
| Length (with docking units), m | 4,91 |
| Maximum diamagr, m | 2,55 |
| The volume of hermetic compartment, m? | 13 |
The docking compartment "Pierce" consists of a hermetic case and installed on it equipment, service systems and structural elements that provide outputs into open space.
The hydrocorpus compartment and the power kit are made of aluminum alloys of AMG 6, pipelines - from corrosion-resistant steels and titanium alloys. Outside, the case is closed with 1 mm thick anti-reflective protection panels and screencuff thermal insulation
Two docking nodes are active and passive - located along the longitudinal axis "Pierce". Active docking unit is designed for a hermetic connection with a "Star". The passive docking unit, located on the opposite side of the compartment, is intended for a hermetic connection with the "Union TM Union" and "Progress M" type transport ships.
Outside the compartment is installed four antennas for measuring the parameters of the relative movement "Course-A" used when docking the CO to the ISS, as well as the "Course-P" system, providing rapprochement and docking to the transport ships compartment.
In the case there are two ring spark set with hatches to enter outdoor space. Both hatches have a diameter in the light of 1000 mm. Each lid has the window diameter in Light 228 mm. Both hatches are absolutely equally equivalent and can be used depending on which side of the Pierce is more convenient to carry out the yield of crew members into open space. Each hatch is designed for 120 openings. For the convenience of the space of astronauts in the open space around the hatches there are ring handrails inside and outside the compartment.
Outside of all the elements of the compartment housing are also installed orders to facilitate the work of crew members during outputs.
Inside with Pierce, blocks of thermostat systems, communication, onboard complex, telemetry, telemetry, telemetry control systems, television and telemetry system controls and thermostat system pipelines are laid.
In the compartment there are control panels, control and management of service systems with CO, communication, removal and power supply, lighting switches, electrical outlet.
The two BSS pairing units provide the sliding of two crew members in the "Orlan-M" Speakers.
Module service systems:
thermostat system;
communication system;
onboard control system;
control and management console and management of CO service systems;
television and telemetry system.
Module target systems:
sliding control panels.
two pairing units that provide the gateway of two crew members.
two hatches to exit open space with a diameter of 1000 mm.
active and passive docking nodes.
Connecting Module "Harmony"
The Harmony module (Harmony) was delivered to the ISS on board the shuttle "Discovery" (STS-120) and on October 26, 2007 was temporarily installed on the left docking unit of the UNITi module.
On November 14, 2007, the "Harmony" module was moved by the ISS-16 crew at a permanent place - to the front docking unit of the Destini module. Pre-on the front docking unit of the "Harmony" module was transferred by the connecting module of shuttle shuttle.
The "Harmony" module is a connecting element for two research laboratories: European - "Columbus" and Japanese - "Kibo".
It provides power to the modules connected to it and data exchange. To ensure the possibility of increasing the number of the permanent crew of the ISS in the module, an additional system for providing life is established.
In addition, the module is equipped with three additional bedrooms for astronauts.
The module is an aluminum cylinder with a length of 7.3 meters and an outer diameter of 4.4 meters. The sealed volume of the module is 70 m?, The weight of the module is 14,300 kg.
The Node 2 module was delivered to the Space Center. Kennedy on June 1, 2003. The name "Harmony" Module received on March 15, 2007.
On February 11, 2008, the European Scientific Laboratory "Columbus" was attached to the right docking node of the "harmony" by the expedition of the Shattla Atlantis STS-122. In the spring of 2008, the Japanese scientific laboratory "Kibo" was docked. Upper (anti-aircraft) docking unit, intended earlier for canceled Japanese module centrifuge (CAM) will temporarily be used for docking with the first part of the Kibo laboratory - experimental freight compartment Elm., Which on March 11, 2008, brought on board an Expedition of STS-123 Shuttle "Endeavor".
Laboratory module "Columbus"
"Columbus" (eng. Columbus. - Columbus) - Module of the International Space Station, created by order of the European Space Agency Consortium of European Aerospace Firms. "Columbus" is the first major contribution of Europe to the construction of the ISS, is a scientific laboratory that gives European scientists the opportunity to conduct research in microgravity conditions.
The module was launched on February 7, 2008, on board the Atlantis Shuttle during the STS-122 flight. Digitated to the "Harmony" module on February 11 at 21:44 UTC.
The Columbus module was built on the request of the European Space Agency Consortium of European Aerospace Firms. The cost of its construction exceeded $ 1.9 billion.
It is a scientific laboratory intended for conducting physical, material science, biomedical and other experiments in the absence of gravity. The planned duration of the functioning "Columbus" is 10 years.
The cylindrical module body with a diameter of 4477 mm and 6871 mm long has a weight of 12,112 kg.
Inside the module there are 10 unified (cells) to install containers with scientific instruments and equipment.
On the outer surface of the module there are four places for fastening the scientific apparatus intended for conducting research and experiments in the conditions of open space. (Studying of solar-earth ties, analysis of the impact on equipment and long-term stay in space, experiments on the survival of bacteria in extreme conditions, etc.).
At the time of delivery to the ISS, 5 containers with scientific equipment were already installed in the module for conducting scientific experiments in the field of biology, physiology and materials science weighing 2.5 tons.
International Space Station
International Space Station, Socre. (eng. International Space Station, Sokr. ISS.) - manned, used as a multipurpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project, which involves 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants were Brazil and the United Kingdom.
The management of the ISS is carried out: the Russian segment is from the Center for Space Flight Management in Korolev, the American segment - from the center of flight management named after Lyndon Johnson in Houston. The management of laboratory modules - the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Cybo" - control the centers of the Office of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the centers.
History of creation
In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on creating an American orbital station. In 1988, the projected station was called "Freedom" ("Freedom"). At that time it was a joint draft USA, ESA, Canada and Japan. The large-sized managed station was planned, the modules of which will be delivered in turn into the orbit of Space Shuttle. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it turned out that the cost of development of the project was too large and only international cooperation will allow you to create such a station. The USSR, who has already had experience in creating and removing the Salute orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned in the early 1990s the creation of the Mir-2 station, but due to the economic difficulties, the project was suspended.
On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States concluded an agreement on cooperation in the study of space. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RCA) and NASA developed a joint program "World - Shuttle". This program provided for flights of American reusable Space Shuttle ships to the Russian Space Station "Peace", the inclusion of Russian astronauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz ships and the World Station.
During the implementation of the program "Peace - Shuttle", the idea of \u200b\u200buniting national programs for creating orbital stations was born.
In March 1993, the Director-General of the Republic of Kazakhstan Yuri Koptev and the General Designer of the NGO Energia, Yuri Semenov, was offered to the head of NASA Daniel Goldin to create an international space station.
In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, a proposal for the creation of the International Space Station was discussed in the US Congress. This proposal was not accepted with a translate only in one voice: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.
On September 2, 1993, Vice President of the USA Albert Mountains and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project "Genuinely International Space Station". From that moment on, the official name of the station was the "International Space Station", although the unofficial - Space station Alpha was used in parallel.
ISS, July 1999. At the top of the Unity module, downstairs, with deployed solar panels - dawn
On November 1, 1993, RKA and NASA signed a "detailed work plan for the International Space Station."
On June 23, 1994, Yuri Coptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington "Temporary agreement on the work leading to Russian partnership in a permanent piloted civil space station", in which Russia officially connected to work on the ISS.
November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were concluded with project company firms - "Boeing" and the RCC "Energia". S. P. Korolev.
March 1995 - in the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston was approved by a draft station.
1996 - approved station configuration. It consists of two segments - the Russian (modernized version "Mir-2") and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, members of the European Space Agency and Brazil).
On November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the functional-cargo block "Zarya", the proton-K (FGB) rocket was replaced.
On December 7, 1998, the American Module "Uniti", Node-1) docked the Shuttle "Endeavor" to the "Zarya" module ("Unity", "Node-1").
On December 10, 1998, Luke was opened in the Uniti module and Kaban and Crycalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.
On July 26, 2000, a service module (see) "star" was docked to the functionally and cargo unit "Zarya".
On November 2, 2000, the transport pilotable ship (TPK) "Union TM-31" delivered the crew of the first major expedition on board an ISS.
ISS, July 2000. Doodled modules from top to bottom: Unit, Zarya, Star and Ship Progress
On February 7, 2001, the Atlantis Shuttle crew during the STS-98 mission to the "Uniti" module is attached to the American scientific module "Destini".
On April 18, 2005, the head of NASA Michael Griffin on the hearings of the Senate Commission on Space and Science announced the need to temporarily reduce scientific research on the American segment of the station. It was required to release funds on the forced development and the construction of a new manned ship (CEV). The new manned ship was necessary to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Catastrophe of Colombia on February 1, 2003, the United States temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when the shuttle flights resumed.
After the Catastrophe of Colombia, it was reduced from three to two number of members of the long-term crews of the ISS. This was due to the fact that the supply of the station with the materials necessary for the vital activity of the crew was carried out only by Russian progress cargo ships.
On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed by a successful start of the Shuttle "Discovery". Until the end of the operation, the shuttles was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights to the ISS, the equipment and modules were delivered to both for the completion of the station and to modernize the part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator.
The second flight of the shuttle after the Catastrophe "Colombia" (Shattl "Discovery" STS-121) took place in July 2006. The German cosmonaut Thomas Ryter arrived on this shuttle on the ISS, who joined the crew of a long-term expedition of the ISS-13. Thus, in a long-term expedition, three astronauts began to work on the ISS after a three-year break.
ISS, April 2002
Atlantis's shuttle, which started on September 9, 2006, delivered two segments of the ISS enzyme structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators of the thermostat of the American segment.
On October 23, 2007, the American Module "Harmony" arrived on board the Shuttle "Discovery". He was temporarily staged to the "Uniti" module. After reloading on November 14, 2007, the "Harmony" module was on a permanent basis connected to the Destiny module. The construction of the main American segment of the ISS ended.
ISS, August 2005
In 2008, the station increased by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, created by order of the European Space Agency, was downtrended, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Cybo laboratory module were docked, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency - the hermetic section of the Experimental Freight Caching (ELM PS) and sealed compartment (PM).
In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport ships was launched: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, the useful load - 7.7 tons, 1 flight a year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(The first launch took place on September 10, 2009, the useful cargo is 6 tons, 1 flight per year).
From May 29, 2009, a long-term crew of an ISS-20 number of six people, delivered in two receptions, began his work: the first three people arrived at the "Union of TMA-14", then the crew "Union TMA-15" was joined. In a large extent, the increase in the crew has occurred due to the fact that the possibility of delivery of goods to the station increased.
ISS, September 2006
On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before the launch of the name "Search". This is the fourth module of the Russian station of the station, developed on the basis of the docking node "Pierce". The possibilities of the module allow you to produce some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously perform the function of the pier for Russian ships.
On May 18, 2010, the Russian Small Research Module "Dawn" (MIM-1) was successfully dashed to the ISS. The operation on the dawn's dawn to the Russian functional and freight block "Zarya" was carried out by a manipulator of the American space shuttle "Atlantis", and then the MCS manipulator.
ISS, August 2007
In February 2010, the Multilateral Council for the Management of the International Space Station confirmed that there are no well-known at this stage technical restrictions For the continuation of the operation of the ISS after 2015, and the US administration provided further use of the ISS at least until 2020. NASA and Roscosmos consider the extension of this period at least until 2024, and it is possible to extend until 2027. In May 2014, the Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station after 2020."
In 2011, the flights of reusable ships like "Space Shuttle" were completed.
ISS, June 2008
On May 22, 2012, the "Falcon 9" carrier launch vehicle with a private space freight ship "Dragon" launched from the Cape Canaveral. This is the first test flight to the International Space Station of the Private Space Ship.
On May 25, 2012, the QC "Dragon" became the first commercial apparatus, docked from the ISS.
On September 18, 2013, for the first time came close to the ISS and the private automatic freight spacecraft of the Signus supply ship was docked.
ISS, March 2011
Planned events
The plans are a significant modernization of the Russian Soyuz Spacecraft and "Progress".
In 2017, a Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) "Science" is planned to the ISS. It will rise to the Pier Module, which will be refused and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully assume the functions of Pierce.
"NAM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;
"NAM-2" (scientific and energy module) is the second module.
The mind (knotting module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned in 2017.
Station device
The station's device is based on a modular principle. The assembly of the ISS occurs by consistently adding to the set of another module or block, which is connected to the orbit already delivered.
For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - "Zarya", "Star", Pierce, "Search", "Dawn"; American - "Uniti", "Destini", "Quest", "Tranquiliti", "Dome", "Leonardo", "Harmony", European - "Columbus" and Japanese - "Kibo".
- "Zarya" - Functional and freight module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered to the orbit. The mass of the module is 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with reactive engines for correction of the station orbit and large solar panels. The service life of the module will be expected at least 15 years. American financial contribution to the creation of "Dawn" is about $ 250 million, Russian - over $ 150 million;
- P. M. Panel - a illegal panel or antimicrometeor protection, which at the insistence of the American side is mounted on the "Star" module;
- "Star" - the service module "Star", which contains flight management systems, livelihood systems, energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Mass module - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking nodes. All its systems and blocks are Russian, with the exception of the on-board computing complex created with the participation of European and American specialists;
- MIME - Small research modules, two Russian freight modules "Search" and "Dawn", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. "Search" is dashed to the anti-airborne docking unit of the star module, and "Dawn" - to the nadar port of the "Zarya" module;
- "The science" - Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides for the conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, temporary accumulation of the crew. Also ensures the functionality of the European manipulator;
- ERA - European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be fixed on the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
- Hermadapter - a hermetic docking adapter, designed to connect the modules of the ISS, and to ensure the docks of the shuttles;
- "Calm" - MCS module that performs livelihood functions. Contains systems for the processing of water, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. is connected to the "Uniti" module;
- "Unity" - the first of the three MCS connecting modules, which performs the role of the docking unit and the electricity switch for the Quest modules, "Nod-3", the Z1 farms and connecting it through the Hermadapter-3 transport ships;
- "Pier" - the port of mooring, designed to carry out the docks of Russian "progress" and "unions"; installed on the "Star" module;
- Pm - External warehouse platforms: three external leakage platforms intended exclusively for storing goods and equipment;
- Farm - Combined fermented structure, on the elements of which are installed solar panels, radiators panels and remote manipulators. Also intended for leakage of goods and various equipment;
- "Canadarm2", or "mobile serving system" - a Canadian remote manipulator system, which serves as the main tool for unloading transport ships and move external equipment;
- "Dext" - Canadian system of two remote manipulators, serving to move equipment located outside the station;
- "Quest" - a specialized gateway module designed to carry out the exits of cosmonauts and astronauts in open space with the possibility of pre-conducting desaturation (nitrogen leaching from human blood);
- "Harmony" - a connecting module that performs the role of the docking unit and the electricity switch for three scientific laboratories and connecting it through the Hermadapter-2 transport ships. Contains additional livelihood systems;
- "Columbus" - European laboratory module, in which, in addition to the scientific equipment, installed network switches (hubs), ensuring communication between computer equipment station. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
- "Destini" - American laboratory module, docked with the "Harmony" module;
- "Kibo" - Japanese laboratory module consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in hermetic and leather conditions. In addition, thanks to a special design, it allows you to carry out unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
Panoramic Dome of the ISS.
- "Dome" - Transparent overview dome. Its seven portholes (the largest - 80 cm in diameter) are used to conduct experiments, observation of space and, when docking spacecraft, as well as as a control panel of the main remote manipulator station. Place for recreation crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the knotting module "Tranquiliti";
- TSP - Four lenger platforms, fixed on farms 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in vacuo. Provide processing and transmission of experimental results by high-speed channels to the station.
- Sealed multifunctional module - Warehouse for storing goods, docked to the nadrid docking unit of the Destiny module.
In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: "Leonardo", "Rafael" and "Donatello", periodically delivered to orbit for the retrofitting of the ISS necessary scientific equipment and other goods. Modules having a common name "Multipurpose supply module", Delivered in the cargo compartment of shuttles and were stripped with the "Uniti" module. The re-equipped Module "Leonardo" starting from March 2011 is among the station modules called "a hermetic multifunction module" (Permanent Multipurpose Module, PMM).
Power supply station
ISS in 2001. Sunny batteries of "Zarya" and "Star" modules are visible, as well as the P6 enzyme construction with American solar panels.
The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is, the light of which the solar panels are converted into electricity.
In the Russian segment of the ISS, a constant voltage of 28 volts is used, similar to the Space Shuttle and Soymatic Space Ships. Electricity is produced directly by the solar batteries "Zarya" and "Star" modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to Russian through the ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian Converter Unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-american converter unit).
It was originally planned that the station would be ensured by electricity with the help of the Russian module of the Scientific and Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the catastrophe of the Shattla "Colombia", the station assembly program and schedule of shuttle flights were revised. Among other things, they also refused to ship and install the NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is made by the solar batteries of the American sector.
In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible folding solar panels form the so-called solar battery wing ( Solar Array Wing., Saw.) Four pairs of such wings are placed in total on the enzyme structures of the station. Each wing has a length of 35 m and a width of 11.6 m, and its useful area is 298 m², with the total power produced by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate primary constant voltage from 115 to 173 volts, which is then using DDCU blocks (eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), transformed into a secondary stabilized constant voltage of 124 volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.
Solar Battery on the ISS
The station makes one turn around the land in 90 minutes and approximately half of this time it spends in the shade of the Earth, where solar batteries do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen batteries that are recharged when the ISS goes back to sunlight. The battery life of 6.5 years is expected that during the life of the station they will repeatedly replace. The first replacement of batteries was carried out in the R6 segment during the output of astronauts into open space during the flight of the SHTTTL "ENEVOR" STS-127 in July 2009.
Under normal conditions, the solar batteries of the American sector track the sun to zoom in to maximum energy generation. Solar panels are subject to the sun using the Alfa and Beta drives. At the station installed two alpha drives, which turn around the longitudinal axis of the truzy structures at once several sections with solar batteries located on them: the first drive rotates the sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery corresponds to its beta drive, which ensures the rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.
When the ISS is in the shade of land, the solar panels are transferred to Night Glider Mode ( english) ("Night Planning Mode"), while they rotate the edge in the direction of movement to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the height of the station flight.
Means of communication
Transfer of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the flight control center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rapprochement and dock operations, they are used for audio and video communications between members of the crew and with flight control experts on Earth, as well as relatives and close astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communications systems.
The Russian segment of the ISS supports the connection with the Earth directly using the LIRA radio antenna installed on the "Star" module. Lira makes it possible to use the Satellite Ray Data Relay System. This system was used to communicate with the "Peace station", but in the 1990s it fell into decline and is currently not applicable. To restore the performance of the system in 2012, "Luch-5a" was launched. In May 2014, there are 3 multifunctional space system for the beam - "beam-5a," beam-5b and "beam-5B" in orbit. In 2014, the installation on the Russian segment of the station of specialized subscriber equipment was planned.
Another Russian communication system, "Sunrise-M", provides a telephone connection between the "Star" modules, "Zarya", Pierce, "Search" and the American segment, as well as VHF -Rodiosyaz with land-based management centers, using external antennas for this Module "Star".
In the American segment for communication in the S-range (sound transmission) and K u -Diapazone (sound transmission, video, data) two separate systems located on the Z1 enzyme construction are used. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows you to maintain almost continuous contact with the flight control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European module "Columbus" and the Japanese "Cybo" are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the US TDRSS data transmission system will complement the European satellite system (EDRS) and similar Japanese. Communication between modules is carried out on the internal digital wireless network.
During outputs in open space, cosmonauts use the CHEM transmitter of the decimeter range. The VHF radio communications also use the Soyuz, Progress, Progress, HTV, ATV, and Space Shuttle spacecraft (True, the transmitters of S- and K U -Diapazones using TDRSS are also used by TDRSS. With its help, these spaceships receive teams from the field of flight management or from the members of the ISS crew. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own communications. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rapprochement and docking Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE)whose equipment is located on the ATV and on the "Star" module. Communication is carried out through two fully independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting with relative ranges about 30 kilometers, and turns off after ATV docking to the ISS and transition to the interaction on the onboard bus MIL-STD-1553. To accurately determine the relative position ATV and the ISS, the system of laser rangefinders installed on ATV makes a possible accurate dock with the station.
The station is equipped with approximately a hundred portable ThinkPad computers from IBM and Lenovo, A31 and T61P models running Debian GNU / Linux. These are the usual serial computers, which, however, were finalized to use under the conditions of the ISS, in particular, the connectors, the cooling system, the 28 volt voltage used at the station used at the station, and the safety requirements were made to work in weightlessness. From January 2010, direct access to the Internet was organized at the station for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected to Wi-Fi in a wireless network and are associated with the ground at a speed of 3 Mbps to download and 10 Mbps on downloading, which is comparable to home ADSL connections.
Bathroom for cosmonauts
The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks like the same as on Earth, but has a number of constructive features. The toilet is equipped with foot retainers and hollow holders, powerful air pumps are mounted in it. The cosmonaut is fastened with a special spring fastening to the toilet seat, then turns on the powerful fan and opens the suction hole where the air flow takes all the waste.
On the ISS, the air from the toilets before entering the living quarters is be filtered for cleaning from bacteria and smell.
Greenhouse for cosmonauts
Fresh greens grown in microgravity, first officially included in the menu at the International Space Station. August 10, 2015 Astronauts will try a lettuce salad collected from Veggie orbital plantation. Many publications of the media reported that for the first time cosmonauts tried their proven food itself, but this experiment was held at the Mir station.
Scientific research
One of the main objectives in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station requiring the presence of unique space flight conditions: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation, not weakened by the earth's atmosphere. The main areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, material education and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Studies are carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its produce.
Scientific modules MKS.
At the moment (January 2012), three special scientific modules are located in the station - the American laboratory "Destini", launched in February 2001, the European Research Module "Columbus", delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese Research Module "Cybo " In the European Research Module, 10 racks are equipped in which instruments are installed for research in various sections of science. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine and fluids physics. The rest of the racks are universal, the equipment may vary depending on the experiments carried out.
The Japanese Research Module "Cybo" consists of several parts that were consistently delivered and mounted in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a hermetic experimental transport compartment (eng. JEM EXPERIMENT LOGISTICS MODULE - PRESSURIZED SECTION ) It was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of Shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when Shtttl delivered a leakage experimental and transport compartment to the ISS (English. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).
Russia has two "small research modules" (MIM) - "Search" and "Dawn" on the orbital station. It is also planned to deliver a multifunctional laboratory module "Science" (MLM) in orbit. Only the last, the number of scientific apparatus placed two mimes will have full scientific opportunities, minimally.
Joint experiments
The International Nature of the ISS project contributes to joint scientific experiments. The most widely similar cooperation is developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. Famous examples such cooperation was the experiment "Plasma Crystal", dedicated to the physics of the dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute of Extrarestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute for High Temperatures and the Institute for Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the Matryshka's Medical Biological Experiment P ", in which mannequins are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.
The Russian side is also a contractor in conducting contractual experiments of ESA and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency. For example, Russian astronauts conducted tests of the robototechnical experimental system Rokviss (English. Robotic Components Verification On Iss - Tests of robototechnical components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechanotronics, located in Web, not far from Munich, Germany.
Russian studies
Comparison between the burning of the candle on the ground (left) and in microgravity conditions on the ISS (right)
In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations for scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. At eleven, the main areas of research received 406 applications from eighty organizations. After evaluating the RCC Energy Specialists of the technical realizability of these applications, in 1999, a "long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the Russian segment of the ICC" was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were initiated by the first piloted expedition in 2000. According to the initial project of the ISS, the removal of two major Russian research modules (im) was supposed. The electricity required for scientific experiments should be provided by the Scientific and Energy Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were abolished in favor of the construction of a single scientific module that did not require high costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research conducted by Russia on the ISS is a contract or joint with foreign partners.
Currently, various medical, biological, physical research is conducted on the ISS.
Research on the US segment
Epstein - Barr Virus, shown by using fluorescent antibodies
The United States holds a wide program of research on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research held in the flights of shuttles with the Spacelab modules and in the world-shuttle program together with Russia. As an example, it is possible to study the pathogenicity of one of the pathogens of herpes, Epstein Virus - Barr. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population are carriers of the latent form of this virus. Under the conditions of space flight there is a weakening of work immune systemThe virus can be activated and cause a crew member's disease. Experiments on the study of the virus were started in the STS-108 shuttle flight.
European studies
Solar Observatory installed on the "Columbus" module
On the European Scientific Module "Columbus" there are 10 unified racks for the placement of payload (ISPR), however, some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of Eka in racks, the following scientific equipment: BioLab laboratory for biological experiments, Laboratory Fluid Science Laboratory for Fluid Physics Research, Installation for EUROPEAN Physiology Modules Physiology, as well as Universal EUROPEAN Drawer Rack Stand, containing equipment for experiments By crystallization of proteins (PCDF).
During STS-122, external experimental settings for the Kolumbus module were installed: a remote platform for EUTEF technological experiments and Solar Solar Observatory. It is planned to add an external laboratory for checking out from and the theory of strings atomic clock ensemble in space.
Japanese studies
The program of studies conducted on the KIBO module includes the study of global warming processes on Earth, ozone layer and desertification of the surface, carrying out astronomical studies in the X-ray range.
Experiments on the creation of large and identical protein crystals are planned, which are designed to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new treatments. In addition, the action of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, and experiments will be carried out on robotics, in the field of communications and energy.
In April 2009, the Japanese Astronaut of Koiti Vacata on the ISS conducted a series of experiments that were selected from among those proposed by ordinary citizens. Astronaut tried to "swim" in weightlessness, using various styles, including Krol and Butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut even to move away. Astronaut noticed at the same time that it would not even be able to correct the situation large lists paper, if they are in hand and use as flippers. " In addition, the astronaut wanted to fire a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back above his head. Having finished these difficult in the conditions of weightless exercise, the Japanese astronaut tried to sneak from the floor and make rotation on the spot.
Security questions
Space garbage
Hole in the shuttle radiator panel ENEVOR STS-118, resulting from a collision with cosmic garbage
Since the ISS moves at a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability of a collision of a station or astronauts overlooking open space with the so-called cosmic garbage. Such can be counted as large objects like rocket steps or disposed of satellites and small sort of slag from hard-fuel rocket engines, refrigerants from the reactor installations of the satellites of the UC-A series, other substances and objects. In addition, an additional threat is made in yourself natural objects like micrometeorites. Given the space speeds in orbit, even small objects are able to cause a serious damage station, and in the case of a possible hitting in the astronaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites may break the trim and cause depressurization.
To avoid such collisions, a remote monitoring of the movement of elements is carried out from the land. space garbage. If at a certain distance from the ISS, such a threat appears, the station crew receives the appropriate warning. Cosmonauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system (eng. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre.), which is a group of motor installations from the Russian segment of the station. Included engines are able to display the station to a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In the case of late detection, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz Spaceships. Partial evacuation occurred at the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011. March 24, 2012.
Radiation
In the absence of a massive atmospheric layer, which surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are subjected to more intensive irradiation by constant streams of cosmic rays. On the day, crew members receive a radiation dose of about 1 millisitive, which is approximately equivalent to human irradiation on Earth for the year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors from astronauts, as well as the weakening of the immune system. Weak immunity Cosmonauts can promote the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in a closed space of the station. Despite the attempts undertaken to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared with the indicators of previous studies conducted, for example, at the Mir station.
The surface of the station housing
During the inspection of the outer sheaving of the ISS, on the scraps from the surface of the case and the portholes, traces of the marine plankton vital activity were discovered. Also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to pollution from the operation of spacecraft engines.
Legal
Legal levels
The legal structure regulating the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:
- First
The level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the "Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement" (English. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA
), signed on January 29, 1998, fifteen governments participating in the project of countries - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Dania, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the basic principles of the project:
This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership, for comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a civilized cosmic station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.. When writing this agreement, the "Cosmos Agreement" from 1967 was taken, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law. - The first level of partnership is based on second The level called "Memorandums of Understanding" (English. Memoranda of Understanding - Mou.s. ). These memorandums are agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, CKA and JAXA. Memorandums are used for a more detailed description of the roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is an appointed ISS manager, there are no separate agreements directly between these organizations, only with NASA.
- TO third The level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the Parties - for example, the Commercial Agreement of 2005 between NASA and Roscosmos, in which one guaranteed place for the American astronaut included the crews of the Soyuz ships and part of the useful volume for American goods on unmanned " Progress. "
- Fourth Legal level complements the second ("Memorandums") and puts into force individual positions from it. An example of it is the "Code of Conduct on the ISS", which was developed pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - the legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.
Structure of ownership
The project ownership structure does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage on the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article No. 5 (IgA), the jurisdiction of each partner applies only to that component of the station, which is registered behind it, and violations of legal norms, inside or outside the station, are subject to proceedings according to the laws of the country, whose citizens are those are.
Interior of the "Zarya" module
Agreements on the use of ISS resources are more complex. Russian modules "Star", "Pierce", "Search" and "Dawn" are manufactured and belonging to Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned "Science" module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The "Zarya" module was built and delivered to orbit by the Russian side, but it was done on the US funds, so the owner of this module is officially officially officially. For the use of Russian modules and other components, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).
The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, enzyme structures, solar panels and two robot manipulator) are used as follows (in% of total utilization time):
- "Columbus" - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
- "Kibo" - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
- "Destini" - 100% for NASA
In addition to this:
- NASA can use a 100% area of \u200b\u200benzyme structures;
- By agreement with NASA, the CCA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
- Working crew, solar power, use of auxiliary services (loading / unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CKA.
Legal curiors
Before the flight of the first space tourist did not exist regulatory baseregulating flights into space of individuals. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the project participating countries developed "principles", which determined such a concept as a "space tourist", and all the necessary issues for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such flight is possible only in the presence of specific medical indicators, psychological suitability, language training, and money fee.
In the same situation, the participants in the first space wedding in 2003 were also, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.
In 2000, the republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the non-proliferation of rocket and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not acquire equipment and ships necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the disaster "Colombia", when the fate of the project depended on Russian "unions" and "progress", on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to adopt amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions for "any protocols, agreements, memorandums about mutual understanding or contracts" , before January 1, 2012.
Costs
The costs of construction and operation of the ISS turned out to be much more than it was originally planned. In 2005, on ESA assessment, from the beginning of work on the ISS project from the late 1980s to its intended ending in 2010, about 100 billion euros would be spent (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds) \\. However, today the end of the operation of the station is planned not earlier than 2024, due to the US request not to reflect its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated in a large amount.
To make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS is very difficult. For example, it is incomprehensible how the contribution of Russia should pay, as Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar prices than other partners.
NASA
Evaluating the project as a whole, the most of the cost of NASA is a set of activities to ensure flights and the cost of management of the ISS. In other words, current operating costs make up much more of the tools spent than the cost of building modules and other station devices, to prepare crews, and delivery ships.
NASA expenses on the ISS, without taking into account the costs of "Shuttles", from 1994 to 2005 amounted to $ 25.6 billion. In 2005 and 2006, approximately $ 1.8 billion. It is assumed that annual expenses will increase, and by 2010 they will amount to 2.3 billion dollars. Then, before the completion of the project in 2016, an increase is not planned, only inflation adjustments.
Distribution of budget funds
Assessment of a distribution list of NASA costs, for example, according to the document published by the Space Agency, from which $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA in the ISS in 2005 was distributed:
- Research and development of new equipment - 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, put on the development of navigation systems, on informational support, on technology to reduce environmental pollution.
- Providing flights - 800 million dollars. This amount included: from the calculation for each ship, 125 million dollars on software, outputs into open space, supply and maintenance of shuttles; Additionally, 150 million dollars were spent on the flights themselves, onboard radio electronic equipment and on the crew and ship interaction systems; The remaining 250 million dollars went to the general administration of the ISS.
- Launches of ships and conducting expeditions - 125 million dollars on pre-road operations on the cosmodrome; $ 25 million for medical care; 300 million dollars spent on the management of expeditions;
- Flight program - 350 million dollars are spent on the production of flight programs, to maintain ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
- Loads and crews - 140 million dollars were spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the opportunity to deliver goods and crews on Russian "progress" and "unions".
The cost of "shuttles" as part of the costs of the ISS
Of the ten planned flights that remained until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope
As mentioned above, NASA does not include the costs of the "Shuttle" program to the main state of the station's costs, since it positions it as a separate project, regardless of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of 31 flights of the shuttles were not associated with the ISS, and from the one remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.
The approximate costs of the Shuttle program on the delivery of goods and crews of astronauts on the ISS was:
- Excluded first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, expenses amounted to $ 24 billion. Of these, 20% ($ 5 billion) did not relate to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
- From 1996 to 2006, 20.5 billion dollars were planned to spend 20.5 billion dollars on flights under the Shattle Program. If you have a flight from this amount to "Hubble", then in the end we will get the same 19 billion dollars.
That is, the total costs of NASA on flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately 38 billion dollars.
TOTAL
Taking into account the NASA plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, in the first approximation, it is possible to obtain an average annual flow rate - $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 (25.6 billion dollars) and folding these numbers, we will receive a final official result - $ 53 billion.
It should also be noted that this figure does not include significant costs for the design of the Fridom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in a joint program with Russia on the use of the Mir station, in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used in the construction of the ISS. Given this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the "Shuttle", we can talk about more than double increasing the amount of expenses, compared with the official - more than $ 100 billion only for the United States.
Eka
ESA has calculated that its contribution over 15 years of project existence will be 9 billion euros. The costs of the Kolumbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $ 2.1 billion), including the costs of ground control and management systems. The total cost of developing ATV is approximately 1.35 billion euros, while each Run "Arian-5" costs approximately 150 million euros.
Jaxa.
The development of the Japanese experimental module, the main contribution of JAXA in the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (about 2.8 billion dollars).
In 2005, JAXA was allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operational expenses of the Japanese experimental module amount to 350-400 million dollars. In addition, JAXA pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, the total cost of development of which is 1 billion dollars. The expenses of JAXA for 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed 10 billion dollars.
Roscosmos
A significant part of the budget of the Russian Space Agency is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress ships were committed, which since 2003 became the main means of delivery of goods and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends at the station (in US dollars), is not simple. The current 2 modules in orbit are the "Peace" derivatives, and therefore the cost of developing them is much lower than for other modules, but in this case, by analogy with American programs, the costs of developing the corresponding station modules should also be taken into account. Peace". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately evaluate the actual costs of Roskosmos.
An approximate view of the expenditures of the Russian Space Agency for the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31,806, for 2007 - 32,985 and 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station takes less than one and a half billion dollars of the USA per year.
CSA.
Canadian Space Agency (Canadian Space Agency, CSA) is a constant NASA partner, so Canada has been participating in the ISS project from the very beginning. The contribution of Canada to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system, consisting of three parts: a movable cart, which can move along the truss station, canadarm2, which is installed on the moving cart, and the special manipulator "Dextre" ). Over the past 20 years, CSA has invested 1.4 billion Canadian dollars station.
Criticism
In the history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps the most criticized space project. It can be considered a constructive or short-sighted criticism, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one remains unchanged: the station exists, its existence, it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases the experience of humanity in space flights, spending enormous financial resources.
Criticism in the USA
The criticism of the American side is mainly aimed at the cost of the project, which is already exceeding 100 billion dollars. This money, according to critics, it would be possible to spend more use on automatic (unmanned) flights for the study of the near space or to scientific projects conducted on Earth. In response to some of these critical comments, the defenders of the piloted space flights say that the criticism of the ISS project is a mining and that the return from the manned cosmonautics and research in space in the material plan is expressed by billions of dollars. Jerome Shnai (eng. Jerome Schnee.) Assessed the indirect economic component from additional income related to the study of space, as many times larger than initial public investment.
However, in the statement of the Federation of American scientists, it is argued that the NASA rate from additional income is actually very low, with the exception of developments in the aeronautics, which improve the sales of aircraft.
Critics also say that NASA often sues to its achievements of the development of third-party companies, the ideas and development of which, possibly, NASA was used, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. In fact, the income useful and bringing, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely illuminates additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the works performed on it, while the official list of NASA's expenses is much more brief and secret.
Criticism of scientific aspects
According to Professor Robert Park (English. Robert Park.), Most of the planned scientific research do not have priority importance. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to hold them in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in the conditions of artificial weightlessness (in a special aircraft who flies through a parabolic trajectory (English. reduced Gravity Aircraft.).
The construction plans of the ISS included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and the centrifuges module (Eng. CENTRIFUGE ACCOMMODATIONS MODULE) . The first operates at the station since May 2011. From the creation of the second refused in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans for the completion of the construction of the station. A highly specialized experiments conducted on the ISS are limited to the absence of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were conducted by the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circidal rhythm (cyclicity of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on nervous system man. Critics argue that these studies have a small practical value, since the realities of today's studies of the near space are unmanned automatic ships.
Criticism of technical aspects
American journalist Jeff Faust (English. Jeff Foust.) I argued that for MCS maintenance requires too many expensive and dangerous exits in open space. Pacific Astronomical Society (eng. The Astronomical Society of The Pacific) At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention paid attention to the station orbit. If for the Russian side it changes the launches, then for American it is unprofitable. Assignment that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to geographic location Baikonur, ultimately, perhaps will increase the total cost of construction of the ISS.
In general, the debate in the American society is reduced to the discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of cosmonautics in a broader sense. Some defenders argue that in addition to its scientific value, this is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS is potentially, with due effort and improvements, could make flights to and more economical. One way or another, the main essence of the statements of answers to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight opportunities.
Criticism in Russia
In Russia, the criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FKA) to defend Russian interests compared with the American party, which is always clearly monitored by compliance with their national priorities.
For example, journalists ask questions about why in Russia there is no own project of the orbital station, and why is the money for the project, the owner of which are the United States, while these funds could be used to fully Russian development. According to the head of the RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopoto, the reason for this are contractual obligations and lack of financing.
At one time, the Mir station has become a source of experience in construction and research on the USA, and after the accident "Colombia", the Russian side, acting under the partner agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, and almost alone saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to critical statements against FKA on the underestimation of the role of Russia in the project. So, for example, the cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is undervalued, and that the partner agreement with NASA does not meet national interests in the financial plan. However, it is worth considering that at the beginning of the ISS construction, the Russian segment of the station was paid by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only for the end of construction.
Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists celebrate a small number of new scientific experiments conducted at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot make and put the necessary equipment for the station due to the lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopoto, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS will increase to 6 people. In addition, questions about safety measures in force majeure situations associated with the possible loss of station management. So, according to the cosmonaut, Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes unmanaged, it cannot be flooded as the Mir station.
According to critics, international cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station is also controversial. As you know, under the condition of the international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developers at the station. For 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives and major projects in the Space Sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that the country investing 75% of funds into his project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for the leading position in outer space.
It is also criticized that significant funds were aimed at manned programs, and a number of programs for the development of satellites failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev in an interview with Izvestia stated that in the please of the ISS, space science was again left on Earth.
In 2014-2015, among the experts of the Space Industry of Russia, there was an opinion that practical benefits from orbital stations were already exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries were made:
The era of the orbital stations, which began in 1971, will go to the past. Experts do not see practical feasibility of neither in supporting the ISS after 2020, nor in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: "Scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS is significantly lower than from the" Salute-7 "orbital complexes. Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating already done.
Journal "Expert" 2015
Ships delivery
The crews of the piloted expeditions on the ISS are delivered to the station to the TPK Union on the "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day scheme. Until July 2011, the delivery of goods, installation of station elements, rotation of the crews, in addition to the TPK Union, was carried out under the Space Shuttle program until the program was completed.
Table of flights of all piloted and transport ships to the ISS:
| Ship | A type | Agency / County | The first flight | Last flight | Total flights |
|---|
