Sealine - tours to France

History of France (main dates)

I century BC - III century AD
The Romanization of modern Gaul is active - there will be places (personless huge buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. The surplus Roman spores were lost and dosi.

IV century
The town of Burdigal (now Bordeaux) is famous for its great school (Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)

5th century
Gaul had over 100 places. Under the pressure of the German tribes of the Suevians, Burgundians and Franks, the Roman armies withdrew from the Rhine cordon, depriving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and established the kingdom of Toulouse.

Close to 450 roku
Under the pressure of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the islands of Armorica (now Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is preserved to this day.

451 rik
Invasion of the Guns. The Roman armies and the Frankish troops defeated the Huns of Attila in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.

V century, remaining quarter
The Visigoths conquered Gascony, Provence and even the whole of Spain, as well as the central regions (Berry, Limousine and Auvergne). Near the valleys of the Sonja and Roni, the Burgundians fell asleep in the kingdom of Burgundy.

482 rik
The ancient regions from the Loire to the Somme and Meuse were united by a tribal union of the Franks. The Frankish Emperor Holdvig fell asleep in the Frankish Merovingian state. The Franks saved the Roman cities and government system.

496 rik
The Franks adopted Christianity following the Roman ritual, which ensured them the support of the Roman pope against other German tribes who supported Arianism.

VI century, cob
Created by the first edition of the Salic Truth - a collection of laws, where the norms of unwritten (simple) law and the norms of early feudal law have gone. For the Halo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law are preserved.

511 rik
Holdvig died. The Frankish state was crumbling due to the downturns of the storm.

6th century, mid
The Franks established their rule, subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians formed. With the influx of Germans, feudal land power began to develop in Gaul.

VI century, end – VII century, beginning
During the course of the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the evening, with the center near Paris and the important Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (at the convergence), Aquitaine (in the evening) and Austrasia (in The eternally similar part of Gaul is inhabited by similar people Francs later went to the Nimechchini warehouse).

687 rik
Major Pepin II (who holds the royal domain, appointment as king) took real control of the Frankish state in his hands.

732 rik
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish majordomo Charles Martel (the nickname means “hammer”) defeated the Arabs, pushing them into the depths of the land.

737 rik
Charles Martell seized power from the Frankish state.

751 rik
Pepin III Briefly sent the remaining king from the Merovingian family to the monastery and founded the new Carolingian dynasty.

768-789 rocks
Charlemagne (742-814) became the French king. Under him, global changes were carried out in the middle of the state, for example, administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. Foreign policy was active (creation of border brands, for example, Ispanska, Breyonska). Charles became famous as the patron of mysteries. The blossoming of the culture has since given up the name “Carolingian Revival”. For all monasteries of the Frankish state there are open schools.

800 rik
The Frankish state transformed into the majestic “Holy Roman Empire”, which conquered the western part of Germany, all of France and the southern part of Italy along with Emperor Charlemagne. With the influx of great Gallo-Roman culture, the Franks assimilated, spent their language, acquiring Gallo-Roman language and enriching themselves with German words. Official language of the Frankish state Romanska.

842 rik
Exchange of “Oaths” (the first French document) between kings Charles the Lyce and Louis the German.

843 rik
Treaty of Verdun - partition Frankish Empire, a vision of the Western Frankish power, which began to be called France

9th century, middle
Norman raids on France. Rozorenny is known as a coastal place, and as a settlement in the middle of the country, near Paris. The Normans buried a part of France at the river Seine and laid down the Duchy of Normandy (911).

X century
France was divided into counties and duchies.

X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.

910 rik
Cluny Abbey was founded.

987 rik
The end of the Carolingian dynasty. Count of Paris Hugo Capet is elected King of France. The beginning of the ruling Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire, Paris and Orleans.

1060-1108 rocks
Philip I. The struggle between local communes and lords became a special feature of the royal power. Before the royal domain, duchies were added to the world and counties became provinces.

1095 rik
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to “call forth the Throne of the Lord”

1096-1099 rocks
I March of the Cross. Composed of two parts - the march of poverty (from middle and early France and western Germany) under the cerivnism of Pierre d'Am'en (the Hermit) the path of pilgrims - the Rhine and the Danube to Constantinople. This is also where the first people in history took place Central Europe Jewish pogroms. For example, in 1096 the feudal encampments of Lorraine, Normandy, France and Italy were destroyed. At the gathering, the Crusaders created a number of powers: the Empire of Jerusalem and the vassal counties of Tripoli and Edessa, the Principality of Antioch.

Close 1143
In modern France, between Toulouse and Albi, the lie of the Cathars (from the Greek “Pure”) has expanded. The Cathars abandoned all Catholic dogmas, brought order to the state, and forced the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility. They created their own church organization.

1147 rik
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which became the trigger for the Second Crusade against Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ending in vain). Louis VII separated from Aleonore of Aquetan, and Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, became friends with her.

1154 rik
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and perhaps 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou fell under his rule and cut the royal domain out to the sea. The origin of the Mitt conflict between England and France.

1209-1228 rocks
The kings and citizens of Northern France, having achieved expansion due to the ancient Albigensian (Cathari and Waldensian) heresy, gave the modern regions with a higher economic and cultural level of life to the worst. As a result of the defeat, they annexed the county of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.

Close 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.

1226-1270 rocks
Louis IX Saint.

1248-1254 rocks
Louis IX Holy Proviv VII Crusading campaign to Egypt, where he spent a lot of money in purchases for a great sum.

1270 rik
Louis IX, having embarked on the VIII Crusade of the Cross, and after conquering Tunisia, died of the plague, like most of the leaders.

1285 – 1314 rocks
Philip IV the Handsome.

1302 rik
"Brugeska matinee." A French garrison was stationed near the town of Bruges, stationed here during the fight for the County of Flanders. The testimony of Philip IV the Beautiful brought his subjects to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flemish weavers killed the lyricists, took from them their gold spurs (the symbol of the licenser’s title and hung them in the church. The calls of the State General were made for the collection of taxes. The first camp is the clergy, the other is the nobility, the third (mishchans , tax camp).

1306 rik
Philip IV Harnius confiscated most of the Jews (most importantly the Likhvars) and expelled them from France, and then allowed them to return (his rule was repeated more than once).

1307 r_k
The Order of the Templars was defeated, for which the king stole great sums. Many members of the order were exterminated, some were expelled, and even more members of the order were confiscated. The Master of the Order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king’s wealth and his offspring. In 1312 the Pope dissolved the order.

1328-1350 rocks
Philip VI began the reign of the Valois dynasty, a major part of the Capetians (until 1589).

1337-1453 rocks
The Centenary War from England.

1380-1422 rocks
In the name of Charles VI, who suffered from the attacks of madness, great feudal lords ruled.

1413 r_k
The struggle for King Charles VI was fought by two parties - the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Insurrection near Paris, conquest of the States General, renewal of the Hundred War.

1420 rik
The Duke of Burgundy passed away from the English king. Occupation of Paris.

1422-1461 rocks
Ruler of Charles VII.

1429 rik
Joan of Arc persuaded the insignificant and weak Charles VII to trust her in order to take over the taxation of Orleans, and when she did, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in the Reims Cathedral - the traditional place of coronation ii French queens.

1430 rik
During the battle with the English at Comp'en, Jeanne and the corral had a chance to reach the town's gates, but they became closed. The Burgundians captured them and sold them to the English. The court condemned Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned to death in Rouen. In 1456, Jeannie was acquitted of all wrongdoing, and she became a national heroine. In the 20th century the Catholic Church canonized her.

1439 rik
Charles VII voted for the independence of the French Church from the Pope.

1453 rik
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundreds of Wars. The English conquered all the continental territories around Calais.

1461-1483 rocks
Louis XI. The master diplomat, who did not like war, and commanded his son’s memory: “He who is not able to give, he is not able to bear.” Crafts and trade have flourished. The origins of economic policy stemmed from mercantilism, which was based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI wanted the development of industry (from Lyon to the production of seam fabrics and the holding of fairs, which quickly darkened the Geneva ones).

1477 rik
The annexation of Burgundy to the royal kingdom after the death of Charles the Bold, the remaining Duke of Burgundy.

1483-1498 rocks
Ruler of Charles VIII.

1515-1547 rocks
Ruler of Francis I.

1534 r_k
The Order of the Jesuits “Fellowship of Jesus” was founded to fight the reformation.

1559 rik
King Henry II died during the tournament. His squad, Catherine de Medici, became regent for the infant Francis II, then for Charles IX.

1562-1592 rocks
Religious wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most of them were townspeople and nobles of modern France). Internal migration led to the erasure of regional distinctions.

1589 rik
The Dominican black killed Henry III, the remaining king of the Valois dynasty.

1589-1610 Rocky
Henry IV Bourbon. The beginning of the ruling Bourbon dynasty (before 1792 and 1814-1830). The integrity of the region was reaffirmed by the principle of uniting “all lands that are spoken by the French.”

1598 r_k
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion was recognized as a noble religion in France. Freedom of Protestant worship was established. Catholics and Protestants have equal rights.

1610 r_k
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, for whom he established the religious world, improved the state of finances and governed the country. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medica, ascended the throne. At the rocks of the regency of M. Medici, the land was actually served by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Kochino Konchina (who was in charge before the assassination of the king), who was killed by the Marquis of Anchor and the Marshal of France.

1617 r_k
The leader of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, stole the king's brotherhood. The end was killed, and his squad was called to the chakunstvo and burned to death, Lewin, having attracted his majestic figure, sought to oust Mary of Medici.

1618-1648 rocks
Thirty-Decade War. France assisted the Protestants of Germany in the fight against the Habsburgs.

1624-1642 rocks
Reign of Richelieu for Louis XIII. Richelieu created the great absolute monarchy and effectively created the centralized power of France.

1631 rik
I founded the French newspaper “GAZETTE DE FRANCE”.

1635 r_k
Richelieu fell asleep at the French Academy.

1648 r_k
Following the results of the Thirty-Fold War, France took a position of power in central Europe.

1659 r_k
The friendship of the future Louis XIV with the Spanish infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the trivial fortunes of the two royal booths.

1664 r_k
Colbert fell asleep in the West Indian and new East Indian campaigns.

1665 r_k
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was appointed Comptroller General of Finance of France. By pursuing a policy of mercantilism, stabilizing the financial system and ensuring economic growth.

1669 r_k
The appearance of the Palace of Versailles is decorated.

1685 r_k
The Edict of Nantes on the freedom of Protestant worship, the meeting of the Huguenots.

1701-1714 r_k
War for the Spanish Fall: Austria, Holland, the Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (son of Louis XIV) became King of Spain. France lost part of the American lands.

XVIII century illuminated

1715 r_k
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is greatly devastated: “1/10 of the inhabitants are evil, and 1/2 are unable to give mercy.”

1733 river
The war with Austria and Russia for the Polish fall.

1774-1793 rocks
Ruler of Louis XVI.

1781 r_k
From the Minister of Finance about the greedy state of the regional budget.

1788 r_k
The Treasury announced its bankruptcy.

1789-1794 rocks
Great French Revolution.

1789 r_k
After the 175-year break, the meeting of the General Staff. A month later, the third country voted in National Elections - this became the prologue to the Great French Revolution. The bourgeoisie insisted on zeal for the law, claiming tax privileges.

1789 r_k
Summer. Village uprising, withdrawal of feudal duties. Political clubs appeared in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of the church lane will change the budget deficit. On September 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted.

1790 r_k
Reform of the church, the suppression of the decline of the nobility, the adoption of the first constitution.

1791 r_k
Not far away, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette left Paris. Reformed newsletter of radical and dead deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, together with Robesp'ère, wanted to punish the king and vote for a republic.

1791 r_k
Europe was preparing an intervention against revolutionary France.

1792, 10 sickles
Storming of the royal palace of the Tuileries, overthrow of the monarchy (the king with family obligations).

1793, 6 kvitnya-2 chernya
1793, 6 kv_tnya-2 chernya before the power of the Priyshov Committee of the Community Order. The main administrative body of the Jacobins based on Danton.

1794 r_k
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: Dantonists (Danton) and Eberists (Eber).

1794 river, mara
The eberists opposed the order and were slaughtered (Eber ta Shomet).

1794, kviten
Strati Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (followers of radical approaches who opposed terrorism).

1794, 26 linden
Thermidorian coup. The Jacobin club was closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just were arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.

1794, zhovten
Founded by Ekol Normal - the initial foundation for the preparation of readers.

1795 r_k
The Institute of France, the greatest scientific center of the country, was created.

1796 r_k
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian armies.

1798 r_k
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the burial of Malta, Admiral Nelson's victory for Abicourt. Napoleon turned to France.

1799 r_k
Napoleon's military coup. Up to three consuls will be in charge of the new constitution. Napoleon - First Consul.

1802 river
Napoleon's appointments as his predecessor's consul. Amnesty for emigrants, government reforms are inaugurated.

1804 r_k
Napoleon voted the emperor, the nobility was renewed, the sovereign power was strengthened, and the Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) was introduced into force.

1805 r_k
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.

1807 r_k
Tilsitsky world - Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. The first sustrich of Napoleon and Alexander I.

1812 r_k Napoleon's march to Russia, the burial of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.

1813 river
French armies were driven from Spain. The anti-French coalition gained strength. Battle of Leipzig - "Battle of the Nations", defeat of Napoleon.

1814, kviten
The Allied forces (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. Having immediately declared Napoleon's tabernacle, he was deprived of the title of emperor and sent to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. After Napoleon's speech, Louis XVIII (brother of the lost king) was removed from power. The country preserved enormous freedoms and the Napoleonic Code. The Treaty of Paris is a spoilsport for France, which lost the war.

1815 r_k
"One Hundred Days of Napoleon": Napoleon's landing on fresh birch France, hike to Paris. Louis XVIII century. Reinvented by the empire. The Battle of Waterloo ended with the defeat of Napoleon, who was exiled to St. Deer Island. Restoration of the monarchy. Another Treaty of Paris - harsh minds, against the first (1814).

1821 r_k
Death of Napoleon.

1824 r_k
Following the Constitutional Charter granted by the king, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national ensign is the white ensign of the Bourbons.

1830 lipen – serpen
Lipneva revolution, the words of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the First Chamber elected the Duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, as king. The ensign of France became a tricolor. The revolution was as crooked as the Great Revolution, but it swept through Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, Switzerland.

1840 r.
Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris.

1848, lutius
A new revolution has begun. The battle in Paris, the destruction of the Tuileries Palace, at the presentation of the throne, Prime Minister Guizot, Louis-Philippe came to the throne. The Republic has been voted. Decree on the right to practice, Decree on the organization of national masters.

1848 r_k
The victory of the republicans in the hour of elections before the National (Establishment) gatherings.

1848, 10 fierce
The constitution of another republic was adopted. Louis-Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) became the President of France.

1849 r_k
Elections before Legislative Assembly. Victory of the monarchists over the republicans.

1850 r_k
Law on the transfer of popular knowledge to the clergy.

1851 r_k
National Assembly has been dissolved. Louis is full of dictatorial appointments and is subject to censorship.

1852 r_k
Louis-Napoleon voted himself Emperor Napoleon III. Another Empire (until 1870).

1870 r_k
France declared war on Prussia. The Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III, having succumbed, was revealed to the throne. Paris of the exodus of the Prussian troops.

1871 r_k
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of the world on minds that were completely unforeseen for France.

1871, 18 Bereznya-16 Travnya
Pariska Commune. Vlada transferred to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The Cabinet of Ministers and the army fled to Versailles.

1871 r_k
The commune was defeated by German and French troops. 25 thousand died. of people.

1871, serpen
National elections elected Thiers President of the French Republic.

1875 r_k
Constitution of the Third Republic.

1894 r_k
The president was killed (since 1887). The growth of revolutionary anarchism.

1895 r_k
Brothers Lumières produced cinematography

They began to be populated by Celtic (Galiv) tribes. The Gauls themselves laid the foundations of the French people, and in ancient times the region was called Gaul.

In the 7-6 centuries BC, the Phoenicians and Greeks settled colonies here, with their roots in the cities of Marseille, Nice and others. The invasion of German tribes in the 5th-7th centuries put an end to the Roman rule in Gaul. The Franks were able to establish the greatest power in Gaul; they conquered Gaul in the early 6th century, giving their land to the people. The territory of modern France became the core of the Frankish state.

At the time of the formation of France as a power (9-10 centuries), the country was divided into a large number of feudal principalities, with few stable boundaries and their own particularities.

The largest feudal state in France was the Duchy of Normandy. At the last gathering, the county of Flanders was strong. At the end of the year, the Duchy of Brittany regained its independence. The royal tribes occupied the land beyond the middle course of the Seine and Loire.

In the present day, the duchies of Toulouse, Gascony, Aquitaine, the counties of March, Auvergne, and Bourbonnais were not under the king's control.

Beginning in the 30s of the 19th century, France pursued an active policy of extermination in France, and until the beginning of the First World War it became another colonial empire after Great Britain.

1 world war led to great changes in the French economy. Alsace and Lorraine were turned over, and the Saarland was transferred to the hands of France for 15 rocks. At the end of the 20th century, France transformed into an industrial-agrarian country.

At the end of the 2nd World War, Paris and 2/3 of the territory of the region were occupied. An important role in the fight against fascism was played by the movement “Vilna Francia”, like General Charles de Gaulle from London.

The war is not enough to leave a heavy legacy for France. The population decreased by 1.1 million people. The area's fallow status in relation to the United States has increased. National wars in the colonies led to the collapse of the French colonial empire.

In 1946, a new constitution was adopted (the Fourth Republic). In 1949, France became a bloc.

In 1958, General de Gaulle was elected president of France, the parliamentary constitution of 1946 was revoked and a new one was confirmed, and the Fifth Republic was born. France left the military organization of NATO (although lost from the political one). Since 1958, France has been a member of the European Economic Partnership (EU).

For the first time, the stinks simply peacefully roamed these lands with their herds of their creatures. In 1200-900 BC. kelty began to settle down at the gathering of modern France.

At the end of the 8th century, after the stench mastered the process of climbing, disarmament began among the Celtic tribes. Luxurious objects discovered during excavations show how rich the Celtic aristocracy was. These items were prepared in various parts of the Mediterranean, including Egypt. Trade was kindly excused even in those hours.

To strengthen their trade flow, the Phocian Greeks settled in the town of Massalia (present-day Marseille).

In the 6th century, during the time of the La Tène culture and the history of France, the Celts began to vigorously conquer and develop new lands. They now had a plow with a slimy opener, which made it possible to cut the hard soil of the central and lower parts of modern France.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The Celts were greatly supplanted by the Belgian tribes, and at the same time, in the history of France, the civilization of the Celts is experiencing its greatest flowering. Pennies appear, fortifications appear, between which the active circulation of pennies is guarded. At III century BC That is, the Celtic tribe of Parisians settled on the island of the Seine River. The very name of the tribe is similar to the name of the capital of France - Paris. A tour to Paris will allow you to see this island of Cite – the place where the first inhabitants of Paris – the Celts of Paris – settled.

In the 2nd century BC. In Europe, the Celtic tribe of the Avernians was dying. At this time, the Romans began to force their influx into modern France. Even more and more often the bastards of Massalia (Marseille) are brutalizing themselves to Rome. The next step from the side of the Romans was the conquest of the lands of lower France. At what stage of its history was France called Gallia.

The Romans called the Celts Galami. between galami and the Romans gradually burned down the military conflicts. Order " Geese roared Rome"appeared after the Gauls attacked this place in the 4th century BC.

Following the protests, the Galli, having marched to Rome, disintegrated the Roman army. Some of the Romans fortified themselves on the Capitoline Pagoda. At night, the Galli began their assault in complete silence. And no one would have noticed them, as if it were not the geese that made a loud noise.

The Romans for a long time resisted the attacks of the Gauls, expanding their influx into their territory.

In the 1st century BC as a confidante Galiya buv messages Julius Caesar. The main headquarters of Julius Caesar was located on the island of Siti, the same place where Paris was located. The Romans named their settlement Lutetia. A trip to Paris involves a lot of travel between the islands and the beginnings of the history of Paris.

Julius Caesar planted diies for the residual rooting of the heaps. All fates were plagued by struggle. Caesar tried to win over the population of Gaul. The third party of these merchants denied the rights of the Roman allies and simply free citizens. The duties for Caesar may have lasted softly.

In Gaul, Julius Caesar himself gained popularity among the legionnaires, which allowed him to enter the fight for control of Rome. With the words “The foal has been thrown,” they cross the Rubikon River, plunging the troops to Rome. For a long time, Galia fell asleep under the power of the Romans.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire of Gaul, Cherub became a Roman governor, who voted himself an independent ruler.

Near the 5th century, the Rhine settled on the left birch francs. From the beginning, the Franks were a single people; they were divided into Salic and Republic Franks. These two great countries, in their own way, shared more different “kingdoms”, ruled by their “kings”, in fact, only by military leaders.

The first royal dynasty is respected by the Frankish state Merovingians (book V century - 751). The Qiu dynasty took the name from the legendary founder of the family - Merovea.

The most prominent representative of the first dynasty in the history of France was Clovis (close to 481 - 511). Having subsided in 481 years, their father’s minor wars began, leading to active military actions against Gaul. At 486 rub. At the Battle of Soissons, Clodwig defeated the remaining Roman magistrates of the central part of Gaul and significantly expanded his military base. Thus, at the hands of the Franks, a large region of Roman Gaul and Paris was lost.

Clovis died Paris With its capital, the power grew greatly. He settled on the island of Siti, at the palace of the Roman governor. Although tours to Paris include until the program of this place, practically nothing from Clovis's time has come down to the present day. Later, Khlodvig reached these territories in the last days. The Franks subjugated many German tribes on their descent to the Rhine.

The most important goal of Clovis's reign was his christening. During Clovis's reign, the Franks adopted the Christian religion. This is truly an important stage in the history of France. What was blamed for Clovis Frankish power arose for nearly four centuries and became the undisputed leader of future France. At V-VI Art. all of Galiya became part of the great Frankish monarchy.

Another dynasty in the history of France was Carolingians. The stinks ruled the Frankish state 751 Roku. The first king of this dynasty Pipin Short. He bequeathed a great power to his sons – Charles and Carloman. After the death of the rest, the entire Frankish state fell into the hands of King Charles. Its main goal was the creation of a Christian Christian state, in which the Franks included pagans.

Becoming a bright figure in history of France. In the near future the military campaigns began. The scope of the conquest was so great that the territory of the Frankish state fell into war.

At this time, the Roman region was under the rule of Constantinople, and the Roman popes were the negotiators of the Byzantine emperor. The stinks rushed to help the ruler of the Franks, and Charles gave them encouragement. He defeated the king of the Lombards, who threatened the Roman region. Having accepted the title of Lombard king, Charles began to introduce the Frankish system into Italy and united Gaul and Italy into one power. U 800 former coronations in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

Charlemagne gained the support of royal power from the Catholic Church - he enriched its representatives with the most important estates, various privileges, and wanted the Primus Christianization of the population of the conquered lands.

Charles's greatest activity in the field of education was devoted to the task of Christian education. He saw the decree about the establishment of schools at monasteries and tried to provide compulsory education for the children of noble people. For the highest state and church plantings, we asked the most holy people of Europe. The interest in theology and Latin literature that flourished at the court of Charlemagne gives historians the right to call his era Carolingian holidays.

The renovation and maintenance of roads and bridges, the settlement of former lands and the development of new ones, the construction of palaces and churches, the introduction of rational methods of agriculture - all the merits of Charlemagne. The dynasty itself was called the Carolingians. The capital of the Carolingians was the place Aachen. Although the Carolingians moved the capital of their state from Paris, a monument to Charlemagne can now be erected on the Isle of Cite near Paris. It is located on the square in front of Notre Dame Cathedral in the square named after him. Finally, Paris will allow you to create a monument to this person, who left a bright trace in the history of France.

Charlemagne died in Aachen on 28 September 814 Roku. His body was transferred to the Aachen Cathedral he built, and placed in a copper gilded sarcophagus.

The empire created by Charlemagne disintegrated during the advancing century. behind Treaty of Verdun 843 It was divided into three powers, two of which – Zakhidno-Frankska and Skhidno-Frankska – became the predecessors of France and Germany. The union of the state and the church that he created greatly signified the nature of the European partnership for a century to come. The enlightenment and church reforms of Charlemagne saved significant time.

The image of Charles became legendary after his death. Numerous accounts of the legend about him were included in the cycle of novels about Charlemagne. Following the Latin form of the name Charles – Carolus – the rulers of other powers began to be called “kings”.

Behind the attackers of Charlemagne, a trend immediately appeared before the collapse of the state. Sin and the attacker Charles Louis I the Pious (814–840) Father was not afraid and was not able to get in touch with the important leader of the empire.

After the death of Louis, the three blues began to fight for power. Senior Syn - Lothar- once recognized by the emperor and reclaimed Italy. Another brother - Louis the German- ruling similar francs, and the third, Charles Lysias, - In francs. The young brothers seized the imperial crown from Lothair, who was awarded by three brothers in 843 rubles. signed the Treaty of Verdun.

Lothar retained his imperial title and seized the lands that stretched from Rome through Alsace and Lorraine to the Rhine. Louis entered the Western Frankish Kingdom from Volodin, and Charles entered the Western Frankish Kingdom from Volodin. From that time on, these three territories developed independently, becoming the predecessors of France, Germany and Italy. A new stage has begun in the history of France: Germany has not risen again since the middle ages. The grievances of this region were fought over by various royal dynasties and turned into political and military opponents.

I am extremely careful about 8 – on the cob 10 tbsp. were raids Vikings from Scandinavia. Sailing on their old maneuverable ships on the southern and western shores of France, the Vikings robbed the merchants of the coast, and then began to plunder and populate the land on the southern coast of France. At 885–886 pp. The Viking army captured Paris, and especially to the heroic warriors, such as the Cheruvali. Count Odo and Bishop Gozlen of Paris, the Vikings were thrown out of the walls of the place. Charles the Fox, king of the Carolingian dynasty, was unable to give help and lost his throne. New king 887 becoming a count Odo Parizky.

The Viking guide Rollo managed to gain a foothold between the Somma River and Brittany, and the king Karl Prostius From the Carolingian dynasty, there was an attempt to recognize my right to this land in the minds of the supreme royal power. This area became known as the Duchy of Normandy, where the Vikings quickly took over the Frankish culture and language.

The uneven period between 887 and 987 in the political history of France was marked by the struggle between the Carolingian dynasty and the family of Count Odo. In 987, the great feudal magnates gave precedence to the Odo family and made them king Hugo Capeta Count Parisky. On this day they started calling the dynasty Capetians. Tse bula third royal dynasty history of France.

At that time, France was greatly fragmented. The counties of Flanders, Toulouse, Champagne, Anjou and other counties are strong. Tours, Blois, Chartres and Meaux. In fact, the independent lands were the duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Normandy and Brittany. The other Capetian rulers were disliked only by those who were legally elected kings of France. They also cared for their ancestral lands in Ile-de-France, which stretched from Paris to Orleans. But here, in Ile de France, the stinks could not control their vassals.

Only during the period of 30-year rule Louis VI Tolstoy (1108–1137) It was possible to tidy up the unruly vassals and increase royal power.

After this, Louis took over the right management. He recognized only loyal and local officials, who were called provost. They signed the royal will and always stood under the gaze of the king, who was gradually growing out of the country.

The critical stage in the history of France and the Capetian dynasty dates back to 1137–1214. More in 1066 Duke of Normandy Wilhelm the Conqueror defeating the army of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold and annexing his rich kingdom to his duchy. Having become the king of England and his mother, Volodinya became the mainland of France. It's time to rule Louis VII (1137-1180) The English kings buried almost half of France. The English king Henry created a great feudal power, which also became part of the Ile-de-France.

If Louis VII were to replace another so-insignificant king on the throne, France could have suffered a catastrophe.

Ale the fall of Louis becoming his son Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), one of the greatest kings in the history of central France. They launched a strong fight against Henry II, fought against the English king and wanted a mutual fight against their sons who were taking lands on the mainland. In this manner, Philip began to take over the evil spirits at his own discretion. Step by step, the attackers of Henry II relieved all the Volodians from France and Gascony.

So Philip II Augustus confirmed the hegemony of France in Western Europe a century is coming. The Louvre will be the king of Paris. It's just a castle-fort. For all of us, a tour of Paris includes a visit to the Louvre.

The most progressive innovations of Pylyp were the appointment of officials to manage the newly created judicial districts in the acquired territories. These new officials, taking salaries from the royal treasury, signed the king's commissions and helped to unite the newly conquered territories. Philip himself stimulated the development of localities in France, giving them broad rights of self-government.

Philip added a lot about the beauty and safety of the place. We valued the walls of the city, leaving behind their moats. The king paved the roads, paved the streets of Brooke, and often robbed them with a wooly cat. Philip welcomed the sleepy development of the University of Paris, becoming aware of professors in cities and towns. Under whose reign the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris continued, its expansion also included a tour to Paris. Repairs in Paris are usually transferred to the Louvre, which began under Philip Augustus.

At the hour of Pilip's reigning son Louis VIII (1223–1226) The county of Toulouse was annexed to the kingdom. Now France stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. Yogo became the attacker Louis IX (1226–1270), whom they called zgod Saint Louis. We are able to resolve territorial disputes through negotiations and the establishment of agreements, which appear to have an ethos and tolerance that is unprecedented for the average economy. As a result of the late reign of Louis IX, France may once again have lived among the world.

At the Board Pylipas III (1270-1285) the attempt to expand the kingdom ended soon after. Philip's greatest achievements in the history of France were the alliance between his son and the Spade of Champagne County, which guaranteed the annexation of these lands to the royal lands.

Philip IV the Handsome.

Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) Having played the original role in the history of France, the transformed France became a modern power. Philip founded the absolute monarchy.

To weaken the power of the great feudal lords, they violated the norms of Roman law in opposition to ecclesiastical and state law, which otherwise separated all the crowns from biblical commandments and tradition. For Philip, the most important organs rule – Paris Parliament, Supreme Court and Rakhunkova Chamber (Treasury)- From fewer regular assemblies of high nobility, they were transformed into permanently active institutions, in which they served mainly as legislators - experts in Roman law, who came from among the ranks of the nobles and rich townspeople.

Standing by the interests of his country, Philip IV the Fair expanded the territory of the kingdom.

Philip the Fair decided to decide on a policy to reduce the power of the popes over France. The popes decided to liquidate the church from behind sovereign power and gave it a special supranational and sovereign status, and Philip IV ordered that all subjects of the kingdom submit to a single royal court.

The popes also sought the opportunity for the church not to pay taxes from the secular authorities. Philip IV, having respected the state, the demise and the clergy, were obliged to help their country.

In the fight against such a powerful force as the papacy, Philip decided to confront the nation and call upon the first in the history of France in the history of France, the State General - legislative gatherings of representatives of the three states of the country They are: the clergy, the nobility and the third camp, which supported the position of the king in relation to the papacy . . A struggle began between Philip and Pope Boniface VIII. And in this struggle, Philip IV the Handsome, I will overcome.

In 1305, the Frenchman Bertrand de Gault was installed on the papal throne, having taken over the name of Clement V. This Pope was at the mercy of Philip. In 1308, at the request of Philip, Clement V transferred the papal throne from Rome to Avignon. So it began Avignonske is full of tat", if the Roman high priests turned into French courtiers of bishops. Now Philip felt that he was strong enough to protect the ancient liturgical order of the Templars - an even stronger religious organization. Philip hoped to seize the wealth of the order and thus liquidate the borgs of the monarchy. There are obvious accusations against the Templars of heresy, unnatural vices, covetousness and alliance with Muslims. In the course of falsified trials, cruel tortures and re-examinations that lasted for seven years, the Templars were completely disgraced, and they almost reached the crown.

Philip IV the Handsome, having earned richly for France. Ale's subjects didn't like him. Violence against the Pope was a rage against all Christians; the great feudal lords could not enforce the deprivation of their rights, except for the right to collect government money, as well as the honors given by the king to powerless officials. The taxation camp was overwhelmed by the financial policy of the king. People close to the king were afraid of the cold, rosy cruelty of this extremely beautiful and completely impartial person. With whom you love Zhanna of Navarre, we will be happy. The squad brought youma to the kingdom of Navarre and the county of Champagne. They had four children, all three of whom, one after another, became kings of France: Louis X the Grumpy (1314-1316), Philip V Dougy (1316-1322), Charles IV (1322-1328). Daughter Isabella was seen in marriage Edward II, King of England from 1307 to 1327.

Philip IV the Fair deprived himself of a centralized power. After the death of Pylyp, the nobles demanded the return of traditional feudal rights. Although the advance of the feudal lords could be strangled, the stinks were hidden by the weakening of the Capetian dynasty. All three blues of Pylip the Handsome were not of direct descent, after the death of Charles IV the crown passed to his closest human relative, cousin Pilipu Valois- To the Chief Valois dynasty – fourth royal dynasty history of France.

Pilipou VI Valois (1328-1350) the most powerful power in Europe has become. All of France knew him as a ruler, and the Tatas obeyed him Avignon.

More than a few rocks have passed, and the situation has changed.

England decided to turn back the great territories of France that had previously belonged to it. King of England Edward III (1327-1377) making a claim to the French throne as the maternal son of Philip IV the Fair. However, the French feudal lords did not allow an Englishman, even their own son Philip the Fair, to be their ruler. Then Edward III changed his coat of arms, on which the lower French lilies appeared from the English leopard, squealing. This meant that Edward was now ordered as England, and France, as he could now fight.

Edward invaded France with an army that was small in number, but included a large number of right-wing archers. In 1337, in the evening of France, the English began to advance. This has become a cob Centennial War (1337-1453). At the battle of Cresi V 1346 Eduard uschent defeated the French.

This victory allowed the British to take an important strategic point. fortress-port of Calais, Having ruined the eleven-thousand-year heroic operation of his heroes.

At the beginning of the 50s, the English launched an attack from the sea on the day of France's entry. The stench of Guyenne and Gascony sank without any particular fuss. You have galusi Edward III recognizing his son Prince Edward, nicknamed after the color of his lord, as his savior Black Prince. The English army, defeated by the Black Prince, inflicted a brutal defeat on the French 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers. New French king John the Dobry (1350–1364) was captured and redeemed for a great ransom.

France was devastated by the military and hired bandits, and a plague epidemic began in 1348–1350. The dissatisfaction of the people grew among the rebels, as a series of rocks shook the so devastated land. To the greatest rebels Jacquerie at 1358 Roci. Vaughn was brutally strangled, like the rebellion of the Parisians, defeated by the merchant foreman Etienne Marcel.

John the Good replaced his son on the throne Charles V (1364-1380), which changed the course of the war and won almost all of the wasted Volodynia, except for a small area around Calais.

For 35 years after the death of Charles V, both the French and the English sides were too weak to carry out great military operations. The advancing king Charles VI (1380-1422), through most of my life there have been mischiefs. Having suffered from the weakness of the royal power, English king Henry V 1415 having left the French army with misery in Battle of Agincourt, And then began to conquer Northern France. Duke of Burgundy having become virtually an independent ruler on their lands, having entered into an alliance with the English. With the help of the Burgundians, the English king Henry V achieved great successes and in 1420 forced France to sign an important and ruinous treaty at the town of Troyes. Following this agreement, the country lost its independence and became part of the united Anglo-French kingdom. Not at all. According to the agreement, Henry V would become friends with the daughter of the French king Katherine and, after the death of Charles VI, become the king of France. However, in 1422, death overtook both Henry V and Charles VI, and the former king of France was the son of Henry V and Catherine - Henry VI.

By 1422 the English had conquered most of France, which was spread across the Loire River. The stinks began to attack the fortified places, which were stealing the ancient lands that still belonged to the sons of Charles VI - the Dauphin Charles.

U 1428 English armies surrounded Orleans. It was even more important for the strategic fort. The capture of Orleans opened the way to the day of France. To help the besieged Orleans, the army was destroyed, Joan of Arc. The voice carried the news about the girl, as God directed.

Orleans, the axis of the first century of taxation by the English, was in the hands of an important man. The ring of the blockade tightened. The locals were eager to fight, and the local military garrison was showing renewed vigor.

In the spring 1429 army, devastated Joan of Arc, the English were driven out, and the taxation of the place was removed. Enemy, in addition to taxes of 200 days, Olean was released 9 days after the arrival of Joan of Arc, nicknamed Maid of Orleans.

From all over the region, villagers, craftsmen, and wealthy people flocked to the ensign of the Maiden of Orleans. Having built forts on the Loire, Jeanne insisted that the Dauphin Charles defeat Reims, and the French kings were crowned in peace. After the local coronation Charles VII becoming the sole legitimate ruler of France. In the hour of disaster, the king insisted on rewarding Jeanne. She didn’t want anything for herself, other than asking Karl to give back to her family from the villagers’ donations village of Domremi in Lorraine. Joden, from the current rulers of France, did not dare to take these privileges from the Domremie burghers.

U 1430 Joan of Arc completely ruined her fate. In the year 1431, the nineteen-year-old Jeanne had a large bedroom on the central square of Rouen. The place of the bedroom and everything else is indicated by a white cross on the stone square.

At the onset of the 20th century, the French army captured the entire country from the English and 1453 After Bordeaux was taken under the rule of England, it was deprived of the port of Calais. Ended Centenary War, and France once again gained a great deal of greatness. In the other half of the 15th century, later in its history, France became the strongest power in Western Europe.

This is how France turned out Louis XI (1461–1483). This king, having no respect for the ideals of the people, continued to follow feudal traditions. He continued the fight against powerful feudal lords. In this fight we will rely on the forces of the place and will help the most possible miscreants who have been caught in sovereign service. Through a path of rich intrigues and diplomacy, he supported the race of the Dukes of Burgundy, his most serious rivals in the struggle for political rebellion. Louis XI was able to acquire Burgundy, Franche-Comté and Artois.

At the same time, Louis XI launched the reorganization of the French army. Places were liberated from military service, vassals were allowed to be bribed from military service. The Swiss made up the bulk of the lust. The number of troops exceeded 50 thousand. At the beginning of the 80s of the 15th century, Provence (with an important trading center on the Mediterranean Sea - Marseille) and Maine was annexed to France. Brittany lost three great lands without eradication.

Louis XI earned a significant amount of money on his way to an absolute monarchy. Under the new General, the states were elected only once and lost real significance. Changes were made to improve the economy and culture of France, and the foundations were laid for peaceful development at the turn of the decade.

In 1483, the 13th prince ascends to the throne Charles VIII (1483-1498).

After his father Louis XI, Charles VIII took the country away from the decline, everything was restored to order, and the royal treasury was completely replenished.

At this hour, the human line of the Volodar of Brittany joined forces, having become friends with the Duchess Anna of Brittany, Charles VIII included the previously independent Brittany into the fold of France.

Charles VIII organized a triumphal march to Italy and marched to Naples, voting it out to his Volodynia. He was unable to visit Naples, but this expedition gave him the opportunity to learn about the richness and culture of Italy during the Renaissance.

Louis XII (1498–1515) The same number of French nobles before the Italian campaign, again laying claim to Milan and Naples. Louis XII himself was in a royal position, which played a fatal role in the history of France after 300 years. Previously, French kings took pennies into the borg. However, the royal position meant the implementation of regular banking procedures, which was guaranteed by taxes from Paris. The system of the royal position gave investment opportunities to the wealthy townspeople of France and to the bankers of Geneva and Northern Italy. Now it is possible to pay pennies without paying up to the overworld tax and without going to the Staff General.

The successor of Louis XII became his cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angoulême, who became king Francis I (1515-1547).

Francis was inspired by the new spirit of the Revival of the history of France. He was one of the leading political figures in Europe for more than a quarter of a century. At the end of his reign, the land enjoyed peace and achieved prosperity.

His reign began with the Bliskavich invasion of Pivnichnaya Italy, which ended with the eventual Battle of Marignano, in 1516 Francis I made a special treaty with the Kingdom (the so-called Concordat of Bologna), which became the king of the units. about disposing of the lane of the French church. In 1519, Francis' attempt to vote himself emperor ended in failure. And in 1525 he began another campaign in Italy, which ended with the defeat of the French army in the Battle of Pavia. Francis himself then finished off. Having paid a great ransom, he returned to France and continued to rule the country, having been inspired by grandiose foreign political plans.

Huge wars in France. Henry II (1547-1559), who replaced his father on the throne, may seem like a wonderful anachronism in France during the Renaissance. He conquered Calais from the English and gained control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. This king has a rich love affair with the beautiful courtier Diane de Poitiers. In 1559, he died and fought in a tournament with one of the nobles.

Henry's squad, Katerina Medichi, who came from the same family of Italian bankers, after the death of the king, she played a major role in the politics of France throughout the quarter of a century. Under whom the three kings, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, officially ruled.

The first of them, painful Francis II, even in childhood, the receipts from Mary Stewart (Scottish). A few days after he ascended the throne, Francis died, and his brother Charles IX took the throne. This boy-king was under the flood of his mother.

At this hour, the power of the French monarchy began to chant raptically. Francis I had already started a policy of persecuting non-Protestants. All Calvinism continued to spread widely in France. The French Calvinists were called Huguenots. The policy of persecution of the Huguenots, which was enforced for Charles, ceased to be true. The Huguenots were mainly townspeople and nobles, often rich and rich.

The country split into two opposing factions.

All the supernatural times and conflicts in the region - and the insubordination of the king of the local feudal nobility, and the dissatisfaction of the townspeople with the important exactions of the royal officials, and the protests of the villagers against tributes and church lands, and the destruction of the independence of the bourgeoisie - all this took the initial religious extinguishment at that time and led to the beginning Huguenot warriors. At the same time, the struggle for power began and the flow in the region between the two side branches of the old Capetian dynasty. Gizami(Catholics) that Bourbons(Huguenots).

The Guise family, the long-running descendants of the Catholic faith, was opposed by both Catholics, like Montmorency, and Huguenots, like Condé and Coligny. The struggle was interspersed with periods of truces and treaties, in which the Huguenots were given the right to engage in local affairs and create their own affairs.

The third home of the Catholics and the Huguenots was the love of the king's sister Margariti h Henry Bourbon, the young king of Navarri and the leading leader of the Huguenots. A large number of Huguenot nobles came to celebrate the celebration of Henry Bourbon and Margarita in 1572. At nіch on Holy St. Bartholomew (24 sickles) Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents. The dedicated Catholics in the background marked the booths where their future victims would be. It is characteristic that among the murderers it was important to foreign Naimans. After the first alarm, a terrible crisis began. A lot of people were killed right in front of their beds. The killings spread to other places. Henry of Navarre was forced to flee, but thousands of his companions were killed

Two years later, Charles IX died, and his childless brother became his successor. Henry III. There were other contenders for the royal throne. The greatest chances were with Henry of Navarre, but being a band of Huguenots, without ruling over most of the population of the region. Catholics rushed to bring their leader to the throne Henry Guise. Fearing for his power, Henry III killed Guise and his brother, Cardinal Lorraine. This little thing is viklikav in the dark place of the storm. Henry III went to the camp of his own superior, Henry of Navarre, but was soon driven in by a fanatical Catholic monk.

Although Henry of Navarre was now deprived of a single contender for the throne to become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this war turned to Paris and the coronations at Chartres in 1594 Roku. Vin became the first king Bourbon dynasty - fifth royal dynasty history of France.

It was the great merit of Henry IV that he was accepted to 1598 Roku Edict of Nantes- The law on tolerance. Catholicism was lost to the noble religion, and the Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority that had the right to practice and self-defense in certain areas and places. This edict stopped the ruin of the country and the flow of the French-Huguenots to England and the Netherlands. The Edict of Nantes was written in a very cunning way: with a change in the balance of power between the Catholics and the Huguenots, the wines could be reversed (which would later soon lead to Richelieu).

It's time to rule Henry IV (1594-1610) Order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. The king encourages great officials, judges, lawyers, financiers. He allows these people to buy their own crops and pass them on to their sons. In the hands of the king there appears a powerful apparatus of power, which allows him to rule without regard to the tricks and mischiefs of the nobles. Henry recruited great merchants, in every way supported the development of great industry and trade, founding French colonies in overseas lands. Henry IV, the first of the French kings, begins to base his policy on the national interests of France, and not just the emerging interests of the French nobility.

In 1610, the country filed a deep complaint when it learned that its king had been killed by the Jesuit Chen François Ravaillac. His death threw France back into a state close to the anarchy of the regency, leaving the young Louis XIII (1610-1643) there were only nine fates.

The central political figure in the history of France at this time was her mother's queen. Maria Medici, which then secured the support of Bishop Luson, Armand Jean du Plessis (who is better known to us as Cardinal Richelieu). IN 1 624 Richelieu becoming a mentor and representative of the king and actually caring for France until the end of his life 1642 . With the name of Richelieu, the beginning of the triumph of absolutism is knitted. In the case of Richelieu, the French crown gained not only a prominent sovereign figure, but also one of the many theorists of an absolute monarchy. In my own way" Political commandment"Richelieu named two main goals that he set for himself when he came to power: " My first goal was the greatness of the king, my other goal was the power of the kingdom" The first minister of Louis XIII directed all his activities to these programs. The main milestones were the attack on the political rights of the Huguenots, who, in Richelieu’s opinion, shared power with the king. Richelieu's orders included the liquidation of the Huguenot power, the reduction of the power of unruly governors and the appreciation of the institution of general intendants.

The military actions against the Huguenots took place from 1621 to 1629. In 1628, the Huguenot stronghold of the seaport of La Rochelle was besieged. The fall of La Rochelle and the loss of local self-government weakened the strength of the Huguenots, and in 1629 they capitulated. Adoptions at 1629 roci " Edict of mercy»Confirming the main text of the Edict of Nantes, which stipulates the right of free practice of Calvinism. All the statutes that existed before the political rights of the Huguenots were destroyed. The Huguenots lost their forts and the rights to trim their garrisons.

The decision was made to improve the state apparatus of the absolute monarchy. The main approach to this task was the final confirmation of the institution of quartermasters.

In local politics, the king was respected by the governors and provincial states. Acting as representatives of both the royal and local authorities, the governors actually became independent rulers. The instrument for changing this order was the intendants. They became important representatives of royal power in the localities. Initially, the mission of the quartermasters is of a small temporary nature, then it gradually becomes steady. All the threads of the provincial administration are in the hands of the intendants. Beyond the borders, the army is deprived of its competence.

The First Minister is forcing the economic development of the state. From 1629 to 1642, 22 trading companies were established in France. At the hour of Richelieu's reign, the beginnings of French colonial policy can be seen.

The foreign policy of Richelieu consistently takes into account the national interests of France. Beginning in 1635, France, under the Great Patriotic War, took part in the Thirty-Four War. The World of Westphalia in 1648 gave France a leading role international sports in Western Europe.

Ale 1648 for France was not the end of the war. Spain was willing to sign peace with the French monarch. The Franco-Spanish War lasted until 1659 and ended with the defeat of France, which created Roussillon and the province of Artois over the Pyrenees. In this manner the long-standing border crossing between France and Spain was concluded.

Richelieu died in 1642, and Louis XIII died a year later.

I bow down to the throne Louis XIV (1643-1715) There were only five fatalities. Guardian functions were taken over by the Queen Mother Anna Avstrijska. The government of the state was concentrated in their hands and in the hands of the protege of Richelieu of Italy Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin was an active promoter of the king’s policies right up to his death in 1661. foreign policy Richelieu until the successful establishment of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenean (1659) peace treaties. The old savings of the monarchy could be increased, especially in the face of the rebellion of the nobility, which emerged under the name Frondo (1648–1653). Calling Fronde similar to the French - sling. Throwing from slings in a figurative sense means actions against power. In Frondi's boisterous poetry, the anti-feudal protests of the popular masses and parts of the bourgeoisie, the conflict between the Judicial aristocracy and absolutism, and the opposition to the feudal nobility are very clearly intertwined. Having escaped from these forces, absolutism was most significant from the political crisis of the Frondie period.

Louis XIV.

After the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV (1643-1715), who reached 23 years of age, took control of the state from his own hands. Like a drag on 54 rocks " centenary of Louis XIV“- this is the apogee of French absolutism, and the beginning of its fall. The king has completely abandoned the state. He skillfully selected active and persistent companions. Among them are the Minister of Finance Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of Military Affairs Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of Defense Sebastian de Vauban and such brilliant generals as the Vicomte de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.

Louis formed a large and well-trained army, as Vauban never wanted a more beautiful fort. A clear hierarchy of ranks, a single military uniform, and a quartermaster service were introduced in the army. The bunk muskets were replaced by a hammer towel and a bagnet. All this contributed to the discipline and strength of the army. The evil of foreign policy - the army, along with the police created at that time, was widely criticized as an instrument of “internal order”.

With the help of this army, Louis pursued his strategic line during several wars. The most important thing was the remaining war - the war for the Spanish Fall (1701–1714) - the most important test of resistance in all of Europe. The attempt to win the Spanish crown for his son ended with the invasion of the enemy's armies on French soil, the slaughter of the people and the destruction of the treasury. The country has spent all its previous conquests. As soon as the split between the warring forces, the few that remained were able to turn France into complete defeat. At the end of Louis’s life, it was felt that he “had to love war.” The 32 military deaths from the 54 years of Louis’s reign became a heavy burden for France.

The ruler's life in the land pursued a policy of mercantilism. Colbert, Minister of Finance from 1665–1683, was particularly active. The great organizer and independent administrator tried to put into practice the mercantilist doctrine of a “trade surplus.” Colbert tried to speed up the importation of foreign goods and increase the importation of French goods, thus increasing the quantity of goods supplied a penny's wealth in the country. Absolutism introduced a protectionist policy, subsidizing the creation of great manufactories, giving them various privileges (“royal manufactories”). There was a particular desire for the production of luxury items (for example, tapestries, and kilim paintings at the famous royal Gobelin Manufactory), armor, wares, and uniforms for the army and navy.

For active overseas and colonial trade, monopoly trading companies were created with the participation of the power - East India, West Indies, Levantine, and the fleet was subsidized.

Early America, the Volodians of France and Canada acquired a large territory in the Mississippi basin and named it Louisiana. The importance of the French West Indies Islands (Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe, Martinique) grew, where plantations of cherry cane, tutu, bava, indigo, cavy, founded on the origin of black slaves, began to emerge. France took over the low factor of India.

Louis XIV signed the Edict of Nantes, which strengthened tolerance. The vaults and galleries were filled with Huguenots. The Protestant regions were attacked by the dragonads (the dragoons stationed at the Huguenot headquarters, under which the dragoons were allowed “necessary excesses”). As a result, tens of thousands of Protestants were deprived of the country, among them the absence of master craftsmen and rich traders.

The king set up his residence in the city Versailles, the grandiose palace and park ensemble of Louis was created in order to make Versailles the cultural center of all Europe. The monarchy overshadowed the development of sciences and mysticism, and their prestige was promoted by absolutism. Under him, an opera theater, an Academy of Sciences, an Academy of Painting, an Academy of Architecture, an Academy of Music were created, and an observatory was founded. Pensions were paid to those who worked in the past.

Because of this absolutism, the history of France reached its apogee. " Power is what I am».

Until the end of the reign of Louis XIV, France was devastated by desperate wars, which overturned the capabilities of France, and by the losses of the then great army (300-500 thousand people at the beginning of the 18th century versus 30 thousand in mid-17th century), important donations. Products have fallen out rural dominion, industrial production and trade activity shortened. The population of France significantly decreased.

All these documents of the “century of Louis XIV” testified that French absolutism had exhausted its historical progressive possibilities. The feudal-absolutist mode has entered the stage of dismantling and sudden decline.

The decline of the monarchy.

At 1715 r. Louis XIV, already old and old, died.

The fifth great-grandson of five years became the successor to the French throne Louis XV (1715-1774). While still a child, the land was ruled by a regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans.

Louis XV was aspiring to inherit his brilliant successor, but in almost all cases, the reign of Louis XV was a pathetic parody of the reign of the “Sun King”.

The army, joined by Louvois and Vauban, was filled with aristocratic officers who sought their posts for the sake of their court career. This had a negative impact on the military spirit of the army, although Louis XV himself gave the army great respect. French armies fought in Spain and took part in two great campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Fall (1740–1748) and the Great War (1756–1763).

The royal administration controlled the sphere of trade and did not care about the interests of this sphere. After the demure Parisian world (1763), France had the opportunity to give up most of its colonies and face the pressure of India and Canada. Until then, the port cities of Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Nantes and Le Havre continued to prosper and become wealthy.

Louis XV must say: “ For me - even if there is a flood" There have been few disturbances in our camp near the edge. Louis devoted an hour to loving his favorites, allowing the rest to marry at the edge of the border.

After the death of Louis XV in 1774, the French crown went to the second twenty-year-old Louis XVI. At this time in French history the need for reform was abundantly clear.

Louis XVI appointed Turgot as Comptroller General of Finance. A cross-power figure and a prominent theorist-economist, Turgot tried to create a program of bourgeois reforms. Born in 1774-1776 by regulating the grain trade, squeezing the guild corporations, liberating the villagers from the state road scourge and replacing them with a penny land tax, which fell on all villages. Turgot vinoshuvav conceived new reforms, zokrema skasuvannya vikup feudal duties. However, under the pressure of reactionary forces, Turgot was forced out and his reforms were limited. With the reform “burn” within the framework of absolutism, it was impossible to resolve the problems of the further development of the country that were ripe.

In 1787-1789 pp. The trade and industry crisis flared up. I am guilty of the 4 1786 treaty with England, which was created by French absolutism, which opened up the French market for cheaper English products. The fall and stagnation of production have taken over the places and industries of rural areas. Sovereign Borg from 1.5 billion levs in 1774 rocs to 4.5 billion in 1788 rocs. The monarchy has stumbled upon the risk of financial bankruptcy. The bankers expressed new positions.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. At the end of the day, the government began to revive again to try reforms, despite Turgot's plans to put part of the taxes on the privileged camp. The project of a non-stationary direct land tax was dismantled. Desiring to wean off the support of the privileged states themselves, the monarchy called in the 1787 assembly “ notables"- The king selected eminent representatives of the camps. Prote notables categorically decided to praise the proposed reforms. Voni vimagali sklicati General States, that they didn’t get back to 1614 fate. In this case, they wanted to preserve the traditional order of voting in the states, which made it possible to carry out important decisions. The privileged elites decided to occupy a position in the General Estates and achieve the distribution of royal power to their own interests.

Ale tsi rozrakhunki did not work out. The extinguishment of the call of the States General was drowned out by the wide stakes of the third camp on behalf of the bourgeoisie, which was advancing its political program.

The call of the General Staff was scheduled for the spring of 1789. The number of deputies in the third camp has decreased, and due to the importance of nutrition, voting has become uncritical.

The deputies of the third camp, sensing the people's support and encouragement by it, went on the offensive. The stinks threw up the formation principle of representation and 17 chervnya voted for themselves National elections, then. an important representative of this nation. On the 20th of June, having gathered at the great hall for playing in the ball (the original meeting hall was closed and guarded by soldiers by order of the king), the deputies of the national assembly swore not to disperse until the constitution was destroyed.

At the meeting on the 23rd, Louis XVI announced the government's decision on the third day. The deputies of the third camp decided to obey the king’s order. Before them, a part of the deputies of the nobility and clergy were added. The king was trying to punish other deputies from favored states to join before the National Assembly. 9 Lipnya 1789 Roku Zbori voted for themselves Installation fees.

The court stakes and Louis XVI himself decided to forcefully enforce the revolution that was beginning. The troops were drawn up to Paris.

Wary of the introductions, the Parisians realized that the dissolution of the National Assembly was being prepared. 13 linden trees were hit in a flash, and the place was burned by the rebels. On the morning of the 14th, the place was in the hands of those who stood up. The culmination and final act of the uprising was the assault and storming of the Bastille– a strong eight-tower fort with high 30-meter walls. From the time of Louis XIV, she served as a political rebel and became a symbol of Swaville and despotism.

The storming of the Bastille was part of the history of France French revolution That's the first thing I'll overcome.

The onslaught of rural uprisings spawned the establishment of the highest agrarian problem - the main socio-economic food of the French revolution. The decrees of 4-11 Serpnya confiscated church tithes and the right of seigneurial land on rural lands without payment. The heads are tied from the earth with “real” duties – licenses, champari, etc. were stunned by the power of the lords and were forced to buy money. Wash vikupu Zbori decided to install later.

26 Serpnya Zbori received " Declaration of the Rights of Man and Man"- Introduced before the upcoming constitution. The influx of this document into the minds of such people was Vinyatkovo great. 17 articles of the Declaration in simple formulas were expressed as the principles of the revolution and the idea of ​​Enlightenment. " People become popular and are deprived of equal and equal rights“, - read the first article. " Natural and invisible“The rights of people were also recognized as carelessness and oppression. The Declaration spoke of the zeal of all before the law and the right to employment in all sorts of places, freedom of speech and violence, and tolerance of religion.

Immediately after the capture of the Bastille, the emigration of counter-revolutionary aristocrats began. Louis XVI, having declared his accession before the revolution, actually felt inclined to praise the Declaration of Rights without confirming the decrees of 4-11 sickles. Vin stated: “ I'm not fit to rob my clergy and my nobility».

At Versailles, the queen's loyal military units were gathered. Among the masses of Paris, anxiety grew over the share of the revolution. The economic crisis, food shortages, and road conditions contributed to the dissatisfaction of the Parisians. 5 zhovtnya is close to 20 thousand. The locals destroyed the place as far as Versailles - the residence of the royal homeland and National Assembly. Parisian women from working backgrounds played an active role - about 6 thousand. The women who took part in the campaign were the first to march on Versailles.

The Parisian National Guard followed the people, screaming at their commander, Marshal Lafayette. At Versailles, people rushed to the palace, pressed the royal guard, and extorted bread for the king’s journey to the capital.

On June 6, yielding to the demands of the people, the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris, where they were under the gaze of the revolutionary capital. National elections were held in Paris. Louis XVI immediately praised the Declaration of Rights, authorizing the decrees of September 4-11, 1789.

Having strengthened their positions, the Installation Assembly energetically continued the bourgeois reform of the region. Inheriting the principle of communal zeal, the collections liquidated the privileged camps, suppressed the institution of the descendant nobility, noble titles and coats of arms. By affirming the freedom of enterprise, it reduced the state regulation and the guild system. The inclusion of internal trade agreements with England in 1786 ensured the formation of a national market and protection from foreign competition.

By decree of November 2, 1789, the installation collections were confiscated by church volunteers. Stunned by the national mine, they were launched from sales under the sovereign borg.

In the spring of 1791, the Constitutional Assembly completed the creation of a constitution, which established a bourgeois constitutional monarchy in France. The legislative power was handed over to the unicameral Legislative fees, Vikonavcha - to the monarch and the ministers assigned to them. The king could at any time praise the laws, looming the right of a “overriding veto.” France was divided into 83 departments, power in some cases was governed by elected councils and directorates, in towns and villages – by elected municipalities. The new unified court system was based on the election of judges and the participation of jurors.

The election system, introduced by the Collections, was based on qualifications and dual access. “Passive” citizens, who do not qualify their minds, did not deny political rights. The least “active” citizens - people from 25 people, who paid a direct tax of no less than 1.5-3 levres, were deprived of the right to vote, were included in the National Guard, created in towns and villages. Her size reached three times more than half of adult humans.

At this time, political clubs were of great importance - in fact, they played the role of political parties, which had not yet happened in France. The great influx of creations in 1789 Jacobin Club, sitting at the hall of the great monastery of St. James. By uniting the supporters of the revolution of different orientations (terms and Mirabo, і Robesp'era), but in the past, the influx of faded monarchist-constitutionalists was more important.

More democratic buv Cordeliers Club. Until now, “passive” giants and women were allowed. The great influx of Mali into Nyumu adherents of the zagal viborchy right Danton, Desmoulins, Marat, Eber.

At nіch on 21 chervenya 1791 Fatefully, the royal homeland secretly left Paris and was destroyed to the point of a cordon. Relying on the army, on the persecution of emigrants and the support of Austria, Louis decided to rouse the National Assembly and renew his army. unobmezhenu Vlad. Found at a dose and transported to the town of Varennes, the influxes were turned back to Paris under the protection of the National Guard and the alarm was raised by thousands of armed villagers.

Now the democratic movement has regained its republican character: the monarchical illusions of the people have dissipated. The center of the Republican movement in Paris is the Cordeliers Club. Prote the dead monarchist-constitutionalists decide against anyone. " The revolution is already over, - one of their leaders said at the Gathering Barnav, - she has reached her extreme boundaries».

On June 17, 1791, the National Guard, victorious about the “military law,” started a crackdown on unarmed demonstrators who, following the call of the cordiers, gathered on the Champs de Mars to accept the Republican petition. 50 of them were killed, and hundreds were injured.

Political demarcation in to the third The village also called for a split in the Jacobin Club. The club lost its radical bourgeois activists, who wanted to continue the revolution together with the people. From him came the dead liberal monarchists, followers of Lafayette and Barnave, who believed that the revolution would bring about the rise of the constitutional monarchy. Near the huge monastery of Feiliang, the stench drowned out a powerful cloud.

In the spring of 1791, Zbory praised the remaining text of the constitution adopted by Louis XVI. Having lost their functions, the installations were separated. It was replaced by elections based on the census system of Legislative Assembly, the first meeting of which took place on June 1, 1791.

On the right side of the collection was the Feuillians, on the left it was important from the members of the Jacobin Club. Among the Jacobins were then respected by deputies from the department Gironde. The name of this political grouping – Girondisti.

On the ground, before the revolution, the friction between the vessels of France at the same time - Austria and Prussia - seemed to have been smoothed out. On September 27, 1791, the Austrian Emperor Leopold II and the Prussian King Frederick William II signed a declaration at the Saxon Pillnitz Castle, in which they declared their readiness to provide military assistance to Louis XVI and called for What other monarchs of Europe. On the 7th of 1792, Austria and Prussia formed a military alliance against France. The threat of foreign intervention loomed over France.

In France itself, from the end of 1791, stories about the war became one of the main ones. Louis XVI wanted war and his door - they invested in intervention and the fall of the revolution as a result of the military defeat of France. Before the war, the Girondins fled - they suspected that the war would consolidate the decisive victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility, and then the social problems were raised by the popular movement. Pomilkov’s assessment of the strength of France and its position in the countries of Europe, the Girondins hoped for an easy victory and those people would rise up against their “tyrants” with the appearance of French troops.

Robespierre spoke out against the war agitation of the Girondins, supported by some of the Jacobins, supported by Marat. Given the inevitability of war with the European monarchies, it is important for the unimportant to grieve its beginnings. Robesp'er was scarred and confirmed Brisso about the ongoing uprising in the countries where the French armies will enter; " No one likes mature missionaries ».

Most of the Feuillians were also against the war, fearing that, whatever the outcome of the war, the regime of a constitutional monarchy would be transferred to them.

The influx of war henchmen took the mountain. On the 20th century, France declared war on Austria. The beginning of war was not far away for France. The old army was disorganized, half of the officers emigrated, the soldiers did not trust the commanders. the volunteers who came before the army were poorly trained and never returned. On June 6, Prussia entered the war. The invasion of the enemy's armies into the territory of France was unforeseenly looming, and the enemies of the revolution were counting on this, with the royal door becoming their center. Queen Marie Antoinette, sister of the Austrian Emperor, sent French military plans to the Austrians.

Trouble hangs over France. The revolutionary people have embraced the patriotic fervor. Battalions of volunteers were quickly formed. Paris recorded 15 thousand in a year. of people. From the provinces, in defiance of the king's veto, droves of federalists arrived. Tsimi began to sound widely a few days ago Marseillaise- a patriotic song of the revolution, written in Kvitna Rouget de Lilay It was brought to Paris by a battalion of Marseille federates.

In Paris, preparations began for the uprising through the loss of power from Louis XVI and the creation of a new constitution. On the 10th of September 1792, a fire began to sound over Paris - an uprising began. The commissioners elected by the Parisians arbitrarily gathered at the town hall. The stinks created a commune in Paris, which took control from the capital. They stood up and stormed the royal palace of the Tuileries. The elections relieved Louis XVI of the throne, and the Commune, with its power, brought the royal homeland to the Temple Castle.

The political privileges of the upper bourgeoisie, enshrined in the constitution of 1791, fell. Before the elections, all people over 21 years of age who had not been in special service were admitted to the Convention. The race for the cordon of Lafayette and many other Feuillant leaders. The Girondins became the guiding force in Zborakh and in the new order.

On the 20th of Wednesday the National Convention began its work; On the 21st of Wednesday he praised the decree on the reduction of royal power; On the 22nd of Wednesday, France was voted by the Republic. It was the Constitution that needed to be developed by the Convention. However, from the very first moments of his activity, a political struggle flared up in him.

Deputies sat on the upper walls of the Convent, folding their wings. They were called the Mountain by the Montagnards (from the French montagne - mountain). The most important leaders of Gori were Robesppierre, Marat, Danton, Saint-Just. Most Montagnards were members of the Jacobin Club. Many of the Jacobins pursued ancient ideas and defeated the democratic republics.

The right to the Convention was achieved by the Girondin deputies. The Girondins laid the foundation for the further destruction of the revolution.

In the warehouse center of the Convention, about 500 deputies were not included before any grouping, they were called the “plain” or “swamp”. During the first month of the Convention, the Rivne strongly supported the Gironde.

At the end of 1792, the fate of the center of the political struggle began to feed the king's share. When put on trial by the Convention, Louis XVI was found to be “guilty” by the government, having connections with emigrants and foreign courts, and being angry against the freedom of the nation and the safe security of the state. 21 sichnya 1793 fate of guillotines.

In the spring of 1793, the revolution entered the darkness of a new state crisis. Near the birch tree at the sunset of France, a village stab burned, which brought unprecedented strength to the Vendée. The rebels took Kerivnytsia into the hands of the royalists. The Vendean is stabbed to death, having raised tens of thousands of villagers, unleashed crooked excesses and become a wounded republic, which is not going away.

In the spring of 1793, the military base of the region sharply collapsed. After the death of Louis XVI, France found itself at war not only with Austria and Prussia, but also with Holland, Spain, Portugal, the German and Italian powers.

Insecurity, again hanging over the republic, forced the mobilization of all the forces of the people, whose Gironde was lost.

31 herb – 2 cherven The insurrection broke out near Paris. The desire to submit to the people, the Convention praising the decision about the arrest of Brisso, and indeed other leaders of Giron. (31 people in total). The republic came to political ceremonialism Jacobins.

On June 24, 1793, the Convention praised the new constitution of France. She introduced a republic with unicameral legislative assemblies, direct elections and illegal voting rights for people from 21 years, voted for democratic rights and freedoms. Article 119 stipulated the non-submission of internal documents of other peoples as a principle of French foreign policy. Later, on the 4th of 1794, the Convention praised the decree on the reduction of slavery in the colonies.

In Kerivna, the wing of the ruling Jacobin party formed robesperists. Their ideal was a republic of the lower and middle ranks, with a strong morality that is supported by the power, promotes “private interest” and avoids the extremes of the main inequalities.

The spring of 1793, the middle of the Jacobins, took shape in a long period of extinction. The leader of this movement was Georges-Jacques Danton, and his talented publicist Camille Desmoulins. One of the most important Montagnards, tribunes of the first rocks of the revolution, Danton valued the natural multiplication of wealth and the greater profitability of its benefits, and his growth grew 10 times during the hour of the revolution.

The “extreme” revolutionaries – Chaumette, Eber and others – acted on the protile flank. The stench of further raids, confiscation and the power of the enemies of the revolution.

The struggle between the currents became more and more fierce. In the spring of 1794, Eber and his closest comrades stood before the revolutionary tribunal and were guillotined. The ardent defender of poverty, the prosecutor of the Commune Chaumette, shared this share.

At the beginning of the war, a blow fell on the leaders of the faded - Danton, Demoulin and many of their like-minded people. All the smells perished in the guillotine.

Robesperists believed that the position of the Jacobin government was weakening, otherwise they could not put in place programs that could resist broad popular support.

In the early days of 1794, robesp'ierists tried to unite the people with the common religion on Rousseau's formula. With the help of Robespierre, the Convention established the “cult of the Supreme Truth,” which included the vanity of republican honors, justice, equality, freedom, love to the point of death. A new cult was needed by the bourgeoisie, which the bourgeoisie and the masses were deprived of.

Trying to strengthen their positions, the security forces passed a 10th law on strengthening terrorism. This increased the number of dissatisfactions and accelerated the formation in the Convention of the idea of ​​overthrowing Robesper and his followers. 28 limes (10 thermidors) were blinded by the law of Robesp'ère, Saint-Just and their comrades (22 individuals in total) were guillotined. 11-12 Thermidor This share was shared by another 83 individuals, most of them members of the Commune. Jacobin dictatorship fell.

In 1795, the Thermidorian Convention adopted a new constitution for France, replacing the Jacobin one, which was never put into practice. Preserving the republic, the new constitution introduced a bicameral legislative body ( Porada p'yatsotі Please the elders with 250 members not younger than 40 years old), two-state elections, a secular and a May census. The Vikon's Vlada was awarded to the Directory, which was collected by the Legislative Corps, in five separate ways. The Constitution confirmed the confiscation of emigrant lands, which guaranteed the power of buyers of foreign mines.

Chotiri roki Directory mode The history of France has been one of socio-economic and political instability. France was experiencing a remarkable period of influx of new minds (the prospects were highly favorable to progress). The war, the English blockade and the decline of the maritime colonial trade, which flourished until 1789, and the worst financial crisis complicated this process.

The rulers wanted stability and order, a strong government that would protect them both from revolutionary attacks on the people, and from the demands of the Bourbon restoration and the old order.

The most suitable person for this military coup was Napoleon Bonaparte. Plivov's finances provided yogo pennies.

The coup has become 18th Brumaire(9 leaf fall 1799). Vlada went to the three-hour consuls in fact to work with Bonaparte. The coup of the 18th Brumaire in the history of France opened the way for a regime of special power. military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Consulate (1799-1804)

Already at the breast 1799 roku bula accepted nova French constitution. Formally, France was deprived of a republic from an already complex disorganized structure of power. Vikonavcha Vlada, the rights of which were significantly expanded, was awarded to three consuls. The first consul - and Napoleon Bonaparte became him - gained 10 fates. Vіn concentrated in his hands practically the entire length of the viconavch. The second and third consuls gave the right to the right voice. Consuls were first named in the text of the constitution.

All the people who have reached the 21st century have little choice in the right, but they have robbed not deputies, but candidates from deputies. In addition to them, the order selected members of the local administration and higher legislative bodies. The legislative power was divided among several bodies - the Sovereign Rada, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps - and it was placed under the control of the viconic power. All bills that passed these instances went to the Senate, the members of which were ratified by Napoleon himself, and then went to the First Consul for signature.

The order was responsible for the legislative initiative. In addition, the constitution gave the first consul the right to introduce bills directly to the Senate, bypassing the legislative bodies. All ministers were strictly subordinate to Napoleon.

In fact, it was Napoleon's regime of special power, but rather than imposing a dictatorship, it was possible to save the main gains of the revolutionary rocks: the reduction of feudal vassals, the redistribution of land power and a change in character.

The new constitution of the history of France was praised by a plebiscite (popular vote). The plebiscite bags were considered in advance. The voting took place publicly, in front of representatives of the new government; Many people had already voted not for the constitution, but for Napoleon, which gained significant popularity.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)- A prominent sovereign and military leader of the time when the bourgeoisie was still a young, emerging class and set out to consolidate its conquests. Tsebula people, like a small, invincible will and indomitable mind. A whole galaxy of talented military leaders stood behind Napoleon ( Murat, Lannes, Davout,Їй and many others).

The new plebiscite of 1802 permanently secured the position of first consul to Napoleon Bonaparte. You were given the right to recognize yourself as an invader, dissolve the Legislative Corps, and uniformly confirm peace treaties.

Napoleon Bonaparte's gains in power continued uninterruptedly and successfully for the French war. In 1802, Napoleon's day was celebrated as a national saint; in 1803, his image appeared on coins.

First Empire (1804-1814)

The rule of the first consul increasingly revealed the character of a one-sided dictatorship. The logical result was the vote of Napoleon Bonaparte u travni 1804 roku Emperor of France under his empire Napoleon I. It was the Pope himself who crowned him.

In 1807, the Tribunate, a single body based on opposition to the Bonapartist regime, was destroyed. A palace was created, court titles were renewed, and the title of Marshal of the Empire was restored. The situation meant that the French court was using the old pre-revolutionary royal court. From the custom of the beast “hulk” appeared, the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared.

In 1802, a law was passed on amnesty for emigrant nobles. The old aristocracy, which had turned away from emigration, gradually emphasized its position. More than half of the appointments of prefects at the Napoleonic hour were due to their duties until old nobility.

Along with this, the French emperor decided to change his regime, creating a new elite, who took away the new noble titles and was subjected to the same duty.

From 1808 to 1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; They looted the lands both in France and beyond – land power was a sign of wealth and prosperity.

This revival of titles meant a return to the old feudal structure of matrimony. The privileges were not renewed; Napoleon's legislation consolidated legal equality.

Napoleon made all his brothers kings of the European countries rooted in France. In 1805 he was voted king of Italy. The development of its power in 1810, Napoleon I, through the childlessness of Empress Josephine, began the search for a new squad in one of the reigning burghers of feudal Europe. The lover with the Russian princess was inspired.

The Austrian door was the year of Napoleon's love affair with the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. With this, Napoleon was determined to leave before the family of “legitimate” monarchs of Europe and put his dynasty to sleep.

Napoleon abandoned the most serious problem at the beginning of the revolution, the internal political problem between the bourgeois power and the church. In 1801, a concordat with Pope Pius VII was established. Catholicism was opposed to the religion of most French people. The branch of the church from the state was depleted, the state again pledged to ensure the well-being of the ministers of the cult, to renew the religious saints.

The Pope, from his Chergu, recognized the sale of church land to the power of the new rulers and gave permission for those in the church to be recognized in order. The Church forbade special prayer for the health of the consul, and subsequently the emperor. In this way the church became a support for the Bonapartist regime.

At the rocks of the Consulate and the Empire in the history of France, the democratic conquests of the revolution were largely liquidated. Elections and plebiscites were of a small formal nature, and declarations about political freedom became manual demagogy, which covered up the despotic nature of the government.

At the time of Napoleon's arrival to the throne, the financial situation of the region was extremely important: the treasury was empty, government officials had not collected payments for a long time. Organizing finances has become one of the most important tasks of order. Larger indirect contributions to the government succeeded in stabilizing the financial system. Direct transfers (of capital) were curtailed, which served the interests of the great bourgeoisie.

Successful wars and protectionist policies led to increased exports. Napoleon imposed on the European powers lucrative trade opportunities for France. All European markets, as a result of the possible move of the French army, were open to French goods. The protectionist policy of the Ministry protected French entrepreneurs from the competition of English goods.

The hour of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.

The regime that emerged in France under Napoleon Bonaparte, having lost the name " Bonapartism" The dictatorship of Napoleon was a special form of bourgeois power, for which the bourgeoisie itself appeared as a central part in political power. Maneuvering between various social forces, spiraling into a pressing apparatus sovereign administration, Napoleon's rule achieved great independence in relation to the ascendant classes.

Having attempted to unite most of the nation to the regime, revealing himself as a representative of national interests, Napoleon adopted the idea of ​​the unity of the nation, which was adopted by the people of the French Revolution. However, this is no longer a defense of the principles of national sovereignty, but propaganda of the national guilt of the French, the hegemony of France in the international arena. Therefore, in the sphere of foreign policy of Ukraine, Bonapartism is characterized by strong expressions of nationalism. The fate of the Consulate and the First Empire was also due to the continuous bloody wars that Napoleonic France waged with the powers of Europe. In the conquered countries and vassal powers of France, Napoleon adopted a policy that was aimed at converting them into the market for French goods and into the production of milk for the industry of France. Napoleon repeatedly said: “ My principle is France ahead" In the stale powers, at the expense of the French bourgeoisie, the economic development was encouraged by the way of imposing unprofitable trade interests and establishing monopoly prices for French goods. Great indemnities were paid from these countries.

Even before 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte created a great empire, which predicted the hours of Charlemagne. In 1806, the nation was defeated by Austria and Prussia. At the end of 1806, Napoleon marched to Berlin. Here, on November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a great role in the share of European countries.

According to the decree, trade with the British Isles was strictly prohibited in the entire French Empire and its distant lands. Violation of this decree, smuggling of English goods was punished with cruel repressions right up to death. With this blockade, France refused to protect the economic potential of England and bring it to its knees.

Napoleon was beyond his reach - the economical defeat of England. I wanted the lordship of Angli, Ale de Seal was of a disastrous nature: Anglia Volodila by great columns, Mala good to contact with the US Continent, Pro, Vikoristov, Vicorista Vikoristovlyulyuviloved the Torgiva of the Anglіyki goods at the єvropi.

The blockade was difficult for the economy of European countries. French industry could not replace the more cheap and good goods of English enterprises. The rift with England gave rise to economic crises in the countries, which led to the exchange of French goods. The blockade quickly suppressed the growth of French industry, and soon it became clear that French industry could not do without English industrial plants and orchards.

The blockade permanently paralyzed the life of the great port cities of France, such as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, Toulon. In 1810, a system of licenses for the right to trade in English goods was introduced, and the quality of these licenses was high. Napoleon maintained the blockade as a means of protecting the French economy, which was developing, and as a source of income for the treasury.

At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire began in France. It was manifested by periodic economic downturns, growing in the wake of widespread wars among the population. In 1810-1811, France began its worst economic crisis. There were signs of the negative legacy of the continental blockade: there was no growing of orchards, no commercial weeds, and the growth of road grass. The bourgeoisie went into opposition to the Bonapartist regime. The last blow to Napoleonic France followed the military defeats of 1812-1814.

On June 16-19, 1813, a major battle took place near Leipzig between the army of Napoleon and the united army of the allied powers of Europe. The battle near Leipzig took away the name of the battle of nations. Napoleon's army was defeated.

On February 31, 1814, the allied army entered Paris. Napoleon confronted the throne at the expense of his son. However, the Senate, under the pressure of the European powers, again brought to the French throne the Bourbon dynasty - the Count of Provence, brother of the lost Louis XVI. Napoleon was permanently sent to the island of Elba.

On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was relieved of all territorial gains and returned to the cordons of 1792. The agreement was transferred to the international congress of Vidnya for the remainder of all supplies associated with the disaster of the Napoleonic Empire.

10 months of Bourbon rule were enough for pro-Napoleonic sentiment to revive again. Louis XVIII In 1814, a constitutional charter was published. By " Charter of 1814 The king's dominion was delimited by parliament, which consisted of two chambers. The upper house was appointed by the king, and the lower house was subject to a high census.

This benefited the great landowners, nobles, and, in part, the upper echelons of the bourgeoisie. However, the old French aristocracy and clergy supported the constant renewal of feudal rights and privileges, the return of land volods.

The threat of restoration of feudal orders, the release of over 20 thousand. Napoleonic officers and officials caused a wave of dissatisfaction with the Bourbons.

Napoleon took advantage of this situation. I also believe that the negotiations at the Vidensky Congress were very important: sharp differences emerged between the recent allies in the fight against Napoleonic France.

On the 1st of March 1815, with a thousand guards, Napoleon landed in France and began an all-out campaign to Paris. Along every route, French military units moved from his side. On the 20th of February we entered Paris. The empire was renewed. Napoleon stood against the great forces of England, Russia, Prussia and Austria.

The Allies had little superiority of forces, and on June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo (near Brussels), the Napoleonic army was completely defeated. Napoleon presented himself to the throne, having surrendered to the English and immediately sent to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, and died in 1821.

The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army Battle of Waterloo calling for another restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne. According to the Treaty of Paris in 1815, France was forced to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs in order to prevent the occupation of the army (the stink was revealed in 1818 after the payment of the indemnity).

Restoration was marked by a political reaction in the country. Thousands of emigrant nobles, who turned to the Bourbons, demanded reprisals against the political figures of the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, renewal of their feudal rights and privileges.

A “white terror” flared up in the country, especially brutal forms of war arose on the daily, where bands of royalists killed and re-examined people, such as the famous Jacobins and liberals.

However, turning from the outside until last year was still more cumbersome. The Restoration regime did not affect the changes in the division of land power that became the legacy of the Great French Revolution and were consolidated by the rocks of the First Empire. At the same time, the titles of the old nobility were renewed (rather than becoming more privileged), as they were determined to preserve their land supply. The emigrant nobles were given back lands that had been confiscated by the revolution and were not sold to the people in 1815. There were also noble titles issued for Napoleon I.

From the beginning of the 1820s, the most reactionary part of the nobility and clergy, who did not want to join the minds of post-revolutionary France, tried to infiltrate the state policy and thought about a further return to the old order. In 1820, the craftsman Louvel succeeded to the throne of the Duke of Berry. This was a reaction to the attack on the constitutional ambushes. Censorship was renewed, and coverage was brought under the control of the Catholic Church.

Louis XVIII died in 1824. Underneath Charles X His brother, Count d'Artois, ascended the throne. Yogo was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to conduct an increasingly pro-noble policy and thus completely destroyed the balance that had formed at the rocks of the Restoration between the upper bourgeoisie and the nobility at the expense of the rest.

In 1825, a law was passed on the penniless payment to emigrant nobles for the land they spent during the revolution (25 thousand people, chiefly representatives of the old nobility, withdrew the payment from the amount of 1 billion francs c). Suddenly, a “law on sacrilege” was introduced, which passed on punishment for acts against religion and the church, even to the death penalty by quartering and wheeling.

In 1829, a special friend of the king became the head of the order, one of the originators of the “white terror” of 1815-1817. Polignac. Polignac's ministry was one of the most reactionary of all times to the Restoration regime. All its members belonged to the ultra-royalists. The very fact of the creation of such a ministry caused a storm in the country. The Chamber of Deputies was the representative office of the ministry. At the meeting, the king interrupted the meeting of the chamber.

The enormous dissatisfaction was accentuated by the industrial depression that came after the economic crisis of 1826 to fate, which was more expensive than bread.

In such a situation, Charles X decided to stage a coup d'état. On June 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees) that directly violated the “Charter of 1814.” The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, and the right to vote was now given to the great land rulers. The ordinances restricted the freedom of others by introducing a system of advanced permissions for periodic visits.

The Restoration regime was clearly a renewal of the absolutist mode of the country. In the face of such insecurity, the bourgeoisie is unlikely to dare to fight.

Lipneva bourgeois revolution of 1830. "Three glorious days."

On 26 June 1830, the ordinance of Charles X was published in newspapers. Paris was awash with their boisterous demonstrations. The very next day, an armed uprising broke out in Paris: the streets of the city were covered with barricades. Mayzhe Kozhen, the tenth citizen of Paris, took his fate in the battles. Some of the government forces went over to the rebels. On the 29th of July the Royal Palace of the Tuileries was taken in battle. The revolution prevailed. Charles X went to England.

Vlada passed into the hands of the Timchasov order, created by deputies of the liberal bourgeoisie; He was neglected by the leaders of the liberals - banker Laffiteі General Lafayette. The great bourgeoisie did not want and was afraid of the republic; they were saved by the savings of the monarchy, including the Orleans dynasty, which was close to the bourgeois stakes. 31 linden Louis-Philippe d'Orléans he was declared the governor of the kingdom, and on the 7th sickle he became the king of France.

Lipneva's revolution left a superfluous balance: which major class may be subject to political pandemonium in France - the nobility and the bourgeoisie - to the death of the rest. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; the new king Louis Philip, the greatest arborist and financier, was not casually called the “bourgeois king.”

Upon the adoption of the constitution of 1814, which was declared as a vesting of royal power, a new constitution - “ Charter 1830 rock“- The people were deafened by the unknown bans. The king, the new charter declared, would rule by divine right, and, at the request of the French people; From now on, he could not impose laws, having lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the Viconau. Members of the chamber are first treated like members of the lower house.

The "Charter of 1830" voted for freedom of assembly and assembly. There were lowered the age-old and mainland census. The financial bourgeoisie and the great bankers were in favor of Louis-Philippe. The financial aristocracy seized the greatest assets in the apparatus of the state. Vaughn was rewarded with great government subsidies, various benefits and privileges that were given to lucrative and commercial companies. All this contributed to the budget deficit, which became a chronic phenomenon of the Lipnevo monarchy. As a result, the sovereign borg grew steadily.

This further served the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: sovereign positions, which would cover the deficit, were given under large sums and were a sure source of wealth. The growth of the sovereign borg was facilitated by the political influx of the financial aristocracy and the staleness of its order.

The Lipnev monarchy was even more enthusiastic about Charles X's conquest of Algeria. The population of Algeria was inveterately supported; many “Algerian” generals of the French army, among them Cavaignac, “became famous” for their cruelty in this war.

In 1847 Algeria was conquered and became one of the largest colonies of France.

Around 1847, France experienced a cyclical economic crisis, which was caused by a sharply accelerated growth rate, a shock to the entire penny system and a national financial crisis (the gold reserves of the French Bank fell from 320 million francs from 1 845 roci up to 42 million per cob 1848 rub.) , the great growth of the sovereign deficit; I see a lot of bankruptcies. Inflamed by the opposition, the banquet company swept across the entire region: at the spring of 1847, nearly 70 banquets were held with a number of participants of 17 thousand. osib.

The country was at the forefront of the revolution - the third since the end of the 18th century.

28th anniversary is open to the legislative session of parliament. It took place in extremely turbulent surroundings. Domestic and foreign policy was subject to sharp criticism from the opposition leaders. Their defense was eliminated, and the final banquet of the supporters of the election reform, appointments on the 22nd of 1848, was fenced off.

Thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares on the 22nd, which became gathering points for a fenced-off demonstration. Troubles with the police began, the first barricades appeared, and their intensity quickly increased. On the 24th of February, all of Paris was covered with barricades, all important strategic points fell into the hands of the rebels. Louis-Philippe came to the throne on the death of a young son, Count of Paris, and went to England. The Tuileur Palace was buried in the burying places, the royal throne was stretched out on the Bastille Square and the bedrooms.

There was an attempt to preserve the monarchy by establishing the regency of the Duchess of Orleans, mother of Count Paris. The Chamber of Deputies came to the defense of the regency rights of the Duchess of Orleans. However, these plans were destroyed by the rebels. They rushed to the meeting room of the Chamber of Deputies with shouts: “No regency, no king!” Long live the republic!” The deputies were in awe of Timchasov's order. The Lyutnev revolution was victorious.

The de facto head of the Timchasov order became a fading liberal, including a French romantic poet O. Lamartine, which surrounded the seat of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Before the warehouse of the Timchasov district, they were included as ministers without a portfolio of robotic workers Oleksandr Alber, a member of the secret republican partnerships, and a popular democratic bourgeois socialist Louis Blanc. The timing of the order is of a coalition nature.

25 fierce 1848 The fate of Timchasov voted France a republic. And just a few days later, a decree was issued on the restoration of legal voting rights for people who had reached the age of 21.

On May 4th the installation meetings started. On November 4, 1948, the Constitutional Assembly adopted the Constitution of the Other Republic. Legislative power rested with unicameral legislative assemblies, which were elected for 3 years on the basis of the legal electoral law for people over 21 years of age. The Vikon's wife was in charge of the President, who was elected not by parliament, but by popular votes for 4 terms (without the right of re-election) and was endowed with great power: forming the order, appointing and replacing officials, exercising the armed forces of the state. The President was independent of the Legislative Assembly, but could not dissolve it and consider the decisions taken by the Assembly.

The presidential vibori was assigned on the 10th birthday of 1848. Peremig, nephew of Napoleon I - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. Already two days ago, he was trying to seize power in the country.

Louis Napoleon began a vigorous struggle to transfer from the presidential chair to the imperial throne. 2nd birthday 1851 to the fate of Louis Napoleon launched a coup d'état. The legislative assembly was dissolved, taxes were introduced in Paris. All power in the country was transferred to the hands of the president, who was worth 10 rocks. As a result of the coup d'état of 1851, France established a regime of Bonapartist dictatorship. Through the river after the usurpation of power by Louis Napoleon, 2nd 1852, when the emperor voted under his rule Napoleon III.

The Hour of Empire - the result of wars, aggression, the burial and colonial expeditions of French troops in Africa and Europe, Asia, America, Oceania with the aim of establishing French hegemony in Europe. strengthen this colonial force. The war continued in Algeria. Algerian food played an increasingly important role in French life. In 1853 New Caledonia became a colony. Since 1854, military expansion was carried out in Senegal. The French and English forces carried out military operations in China. France took an active part in the “distribution” of Japan in 1858 for foreign capital. In 1858, the French began to invade Vietnam. The French company began work in 1859 before the construction of the Suez Canal (opened in 1869).

Franco-Prussian war.

The ruling court stake of Napoleon III aimed to raise the prestige of the dynasty with the help of the possible war with Prussia. Under Prussia, the unification of the German powers took place successfully. From the similar cordons of France, a powerful militaristic power grew - the German-German Union, the ruling stake of which openly refused to bury the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

Napoleon III, through the war with Prussia, threatened to ruin the residual creation of a united German state. Chancellor of Pivnichno-Nimechchina O. Bismarck was forced to prepare for the final stage of the rise of Nimechchina. The upheaval in Paris made it easier for Bismarck to implement the plan to create a united German Empire through war with France. At the time of the invasion of France, the Bonapartist military leaders made a lot of noise, but little else about the strength of the army, which was recruited from Berlin, but they were directly preparing for the war, reorganizing the army and carefully dismantling the strategists. current plans for future military operations.

On June 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Napoleon III began the war by badly dismantling his forces. “We are ready, we are absolutely ready,” the French military minister sang to members of the Legislative Corps. This is a whirlwind. Lack of luck and chaos were everywhere. The army is in the presence of a military structure, which has nothing to do with the war plan. Not only the soldiers, but also the officers demanded the most urgent things. The officers were given 60 francs each, so that the stench of the merchants' revolvers added to the stench. There were no maps for the theater of military operations in France, so it was reported that the war would be fought in Prussia.

From the first days of the war, the importance of Prussia's advantage became evident. She was ahead of the French in the mobilization of troops and their concentration at the cordon. The Prussians had little greater numerical superiority. Their command was diligently working on the plans for the war.

The Prussians practically cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazaine, advanced to the fort of Metz and was surrounded there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, the same emperor, under the onslaught of the great Prussian army and was thrown to the Sedan. Near Sedan, not far from the Belgian cordon, on June 2, 1870, a battle took place that determined the result of the war. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French died at the battle of Sedan. MacMahon's 80,000-strong army and Napoleon III himself were captured.

The news about the emperor's imprisonment shook Paris. On 4 April, people filled the streets of the capital. As a result, France was voted into republic. Vlada moved to the Timchasov order of national defense, which represented a wide bloc of opposition political forces from the empire - from monarchists to radically adjusted republics. At the end of the day, Prussia stuck out its smugglers.

The republicans, who came to power, respected the dishonor of adopting Prussian minds. Even before the hour of the revolution, the end of the 18th century had earned a reputation as a patriotic regime, and the republicans were afraid that the republic would fall into suspicion for the sake of national interests. However, the scale of the expenses incurred by France during the war did not deprive us of hope for victory in Sweden. On the 16th spring, Prussian troops appeared on the outskirts of Paris. Within a short hour, the stench covered the entire gathering of France. For an hour, France found itself helpless before the enemy. In the Zusilla order, the renewal of military potential brought results only until the end of 1870, when the Army of the Loire was formed on the day of Paris.

In a similar situation, the revolutionaries of 1792 called on France before the nationwide war for liberation. However, the fear of the threat of an outgrowth of the national-free war among the masses has reduced the order of such a crisis. There was a message about the irrevocability of the world's order in the minds, as Prussia had preached, but it was an auspicious moment for everyone, and in the meantime it was national defense.

It became clear that there was a new attempt to launch peace talks, as the uprising broke out in Paris. On June 31, 1870, soldiers of the National Guard arrested and for several years held the ministers as guarantors, the docks did not release them to the military order.

Nowadays there will be more disturbances in order to calm down the restless Parisians, under the national defense. The uprising of the 31st year disrupted the truce plan prepared by Adolphe Thiers. The French army unsuccessfully tried to break the blockade of Paris. At the beginning of 1871, the situation in the besieged capital seemed hopeless. The order is that it is no longer possible to get out of the way of the world.

18 SICHNIA 1871 Rock in the Dzercal Hall of Versailles Palace of the Frenchman Koroliv Prussian King Vilgelm I Buvo votes with the Nimeskihi izmperor, and the 28th franziyu that was counted by Ninmeuccino Bulo was Piriyr'ya. Behind the minds of the forts of Paris, the army's reserves of armor were transferred to the Germans. The rest of the peace was signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1873. In his mind, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and also paid 5 billion francs in indemnity.

The Parisians were overwhelmingly in the minds of the world, but despite all the seriousness of the differences from the order, no one in Paris was thinking about rebellion, much less preparing it. The rebels were provoked by the rulers. After the blockade was lifted, payment of wine was made to the soldiers of the National Guard. In a place where the economy has not yet recovered from the legacy of the blockade, thousands of citizens were left without the means to sleep. The pride of the philistines of Paris was captivated by the decision of the National Assembly to turn Versailles into the place of their return.

Pariska Commune

On February 18, 1871, following orders from the army, they tried to seize the artillery of the National Guard. The soldiers were bullied by the residents and advanced without a fight. Already the guards gathered up the generals Lecomte and Thomas, who commanded the regular troops, and shot them that same day.

Thiers ordered the evacuation of the government establishments at Versailles.

On the 26th of February, elections were held for the Paris Commune (as, according to tradition, the body of the municipal self-government of Paris was called). Of the 85 members of the Sake of the Commune, the majority were workers and their recognized representatives.

The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms in many areas.

Before us, the stench lived low in order to relieve the population of the less fortunate burghers of Paris. But there weren’t a lot of global ideas to come up with. The main turbo of the Comuni at that time was war. At the beginning of the war, the battle between the federates began, as the fighters of the newly formed Communes against the Versailles armies called themselves. Silly Buli is obviously not equal.

Opponents of the world reveled in gluttony and outrage. The streets of Paris were filled with blood. In this place there is unforced vandalism, manifestations of communes during the hour of street fighting. In Paris, the stench completely set fire to the town hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileur Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and the Thiers building. Numerous cultural and mystical values ​​perished in the fire. They waved their swords at the treasures of the Louvre.

“Crooked Year” 21-28 May ending the bad history of the Commune. On May 28, the barricade remained on Rampono Street. The Paris Commune slept for only 72 days. Even the poorest communes were faced with further massacres that deprived France of their borders. Among the emigrant-communists there was also a French laborer, singing, the author of the proletarian anthem “Internationale” - Ezhen Potie.

A troubled hour began in the history of France, when three dynasties claimed the French throne: Bourboni, Orleansi, Bonaparte. I want 4th Veresnya 1870 Roku As a result of the popular uprising, a republic was voted for in France; at the National Assembly, the majority belonged to monarchists, the minority became republicans, among whom there were a few currents. The extraordinary country had a “republic without republicans.”

However, the plan to restore the monarchy in France failed. What mattered was the large population of France when the republic was established. The nutritional significance of the political structure of France did not prevail for a long time. Tilki in 1875 National elections unanimously adopted an amendment to the fundamental law that established France as a republic. After all, France has been on the brink of a monarchical coup for several more times.

May 24, 1873 president of the republic former assembly monarchist McMahon, in his place, three monarchical parties came together, who hated each other, if they were looking for the attacker Thiers. Under the intercession of the president, intrigues of monarchists to renew the monarchy took place.

At leaf fall 1873 McMahon's rebirth continued to this day. U 1875 r. McMahon was a decisive opponent of the Constitution of the Republic, which was adopted by the National Assembly.

The Constitution of the Third Republic was a compromise between monarchists and republicans. In order to recognize the republic, the monarchists tried to give it a conservative, undemocratic character. The lawmaker was transferred to the parliament, which formed the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Senate turned around for 9 rocks and then fell through three rocks to one third. A permanent qualification was established for senators - 40 rokivs. The Chamber of Deputies consisted of 4 more people, who reached 21 years and lived for at least 6 months in this community. Women, military servicemen, young people, seasonal workers did not receive voting rights.

The Vikon's Vlada was awarded to the President who won the National Elections for 7 years. He was given the right to stop the war, establish peace, as well as the right of legislative initiative and recognition of civil and military settlements. With this rank, the president's power was great.

The first parliamentary elections, held under the new constitution, brought victory to the republicans. U 1879 Roku McMahon has raised taxes on the exhibition. The faded republicans came to power. The new president was elected Jules Grevy, and the head of the Chamber of Deputies Leon Gambetta.

Jules Grevey was the first president of France, who was a converted republican and actively opposed the restoration of the monarchy.

The exile of Marshal MacMahon was almost relieved. According to the ideas of Jules Greve, a change took root, so that the republic entered a period of equal, calm and fruitful development. And in truth, the fate of Greva’s government was marked by colossal successes for the rightful republic. 28 breast 1885 R. when he re-elects as president Third Republic. Another period of the presidency of Jules Greve appeared to be quite unprecedented. At the end 1887 r. at the risk of losing the title of President of the Republic under the influx of suspenseful storm, caused by cries about the filth of Greve's son-in-law, Deputy Wilson, who was trading in the greatest sovereign wealth - the Order of the Honorable Legion. Especially Grevy will not be compromised.

From 1887 to 1894 r. President of France Sadi Carnot.

These fates of Carnot's presidency occupied a significant place in the history of the Third Republic. This was truly a period of appreciation of the republican order. Kintseva yo bad luck Boulanger and boulangism (1888-89) made the republic even more popular in the eyes of the population. The value of the republic was not stolen by such unfriendly forces as "Panamanian scandals" (1892-93) show it sharply anarchism (1893).

At the end of the presidency of Greve and Carnot, the majority of the Chamber of Deputies belonged to the faded republicans. With this initiative, France actively sought new colonies. U 1881 Roci buv establishments of protectorate of France over Tunisia, V 1885 The French right to Annam and Tonkin was secured. In 1894, the war for Madagascar began. After two bloody wars, the islands became a French colony. At that very hour, France was conducting the conquest of Western and Central Africa. U like XIX During the century, France and Africa exceeded the size of the metropolis itself 17 times. France became another (after England) colonial power in the world.

Colonial wars extracted great sums of money, and taxes grew. The authority of the faded republicans, who determined the interests of the great financial and industrial bourgeoisie, fell.

This led to the rise in the lava of the Republican Party of the left radical wing, rabid Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929).

Georges Clemenceau - the son of the doctor, the ruler of the great master, Father Clemenceau and he himself opposed the Other Empire, and were subject to re-investigation. During the period of the Parisian Commune, Georges Clemenceau took over the seat of one of the Parisian measures, serving as an intermediary between the Commune and Versailles. Having become a leader of the radicals, Clemenceau sharply criticized the domestic and foreign policies of the faded republicans, drawing on their views, which rejected the title “overthrow of ministers.”

In 1881, the radicals split from the republicans and created an independent party. They demanded the democratization of the state structure, the strengthening of the church in the state, the introduction of a progressive income tax, and the implementation of social changes. At the parliamentary elections of 1881, the radicals already stood up independently and took the 46th seat. However, the majority of the Chamber of Deputies was lost to the dead republicans.

The political positions of monarchists, clerics, and faded republicans later came closer to a strong anti-democratic platform. This was clearly evident in the connection with the so-called Dreyfus right, until a heated political struggle flared up.

On the right is Dreyfus.

In 1884, it turned out that secret documents of a military nature were sold to the German military attaché in Paris. There is only so much you can earn from the officers of the General Staff. Suspicion fell on the captain Alfred Dreyfus, Jews for nationality. Regardless of the fact that no serious evidence of his guilt had been established, Dreyfus was arrested and handed over to the military court. Among the French officers, most importantly descendants of noble families, who were rejected from Catholics initial mortgages, there were strong anti-Semitic sentiments on the Dreyfus right became a source for a surge in anti-Semitism in the country.

The military command did everything possible to support Dreyfus's conviction for espionage, he was found guilty and sentenced to prison labor.

The revolution, which flared up in France, for looking at Dreyfus, did not hesitate to protect an innocent officer, but turned into the struggle of the forces of democracy against reaction. On the right, Dreyfus was appreciative of the wide population of the population, and attracted the respect of the Presi. Among the devotees I reviewed were the writers Emil Zola, Anatole France, Octave Mirabeau and In. Zola published a short sheet under the title “I am calling”, addressed to President Faure, who was opposed to the revision of the Dreyfus certificate. The famous writer called for the persecution of the falsification of evidence to put down the active evildoer. The ash for its appearance was attracted to the ship's uniformity, and even emigration to England turned into its kind.

Zola's sheet of paper burst throughout France and was read and discussed everywhere. The country split into two camps: the Dreyfusars and the anti-Dreyfussars.

It was clear to the most far-sighted political figures that the demand for an immediate end to the Dreyfus regime - France was on the brink of a huge war. Virok at the right of Dreyfus looked at each other, he was not convicted, but later the President pardoned him. This is the way to try to capture the truth: the innocence of Dreyfus and the name of the effective spygun - Esterhazy. Lische 1906 rock Dreyfus buv pardons.

On the evils of centuries.

The French people began to forget the national humiliation experienced in connection with the defeat of France during the war with Prussia. The country saluted the wounds left by the war. The contemporaneous French lands of Alsace and Lorraine were included in the territory of Germany. France urgently demanded an ally for the upcoming war with Germany. Russia could become such an ally, since, at its core, it did not want to lose its isolation in front of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy), which was clearly anti-Russian. U 1892 Between France and Russia a military convention was signed, and in 1893 a military union was established.

From 1895 to 1899 r. President of the Third Republic Felix For.

Having left the Elysée Palace with an etiquette similar to the royal courts, unprecedented until that time in France, and having seen the harshness of his reign; We dared ourselves to show up in various places, instructing the prime minister and the presidents of the chambers, trying to speak out on our special significance as the head of the state.

Prices began to appear especially sharply after the annexation of Paris by Emperor Nicholas II and the Empress in 1896. This expansion was the result of the rapprochement between France and Russia, over which the orders before Fort worked under him; he himself was an active friend of his close friend. In 1897, the Russian imperial friends made a second visit.

Industrialization took place mostly in France, less in Germany, the USA, and England. Just as, due to the concentration of production, France was significantly ahead of other capitalist countries, then, due to the concentration of banks, it moved ahead of the others and sat first.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, there was a lot of confusion in the mood of the French. This was clearly revealed during the parliamentary elections of 1902, when the majority of votes were taken by the left parties - the socialists and the radicals. After the elections, the radicals became the rulers of the land. The radical order of Combes (1902-1905) launched an attack on the Catholic Church. The order ordered the closure of schools and priests. The clergy baked and repaired the opera. Thousands of schools of religious orders were transformed into fortification. The criticism was especially strong in Brittany. Ale “Papa Komba,” as the new prime minister was called, lightly following his line. On the right came the rupture of diplomatic communications with the Vatican. They complained about the worst army care, dissatisfied with the attempts to carry out army reform. At the end of 1904, information was leaked to the press that the government kept secret files on high-ranking army officials. Having burst into a loud scandal, as a result of the order of the Comba, there was confusion at the exhibition.

In 1904, France made a deal with England. Creation of the Anglo-French alliance - Antanti- It turned out to be a project of international significance.

In 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Ruve, who came to replace the cabinet of Combe, passed a law on the strengthening of the church from the state. Under this rule, churches were not confiscated, and the clergy were denied the right to state pensions.

Until the middle of the first decade of the 20th century, France had the first place in Europe for the number of strikers. There was a great resonance when the miners struck in the spring of 1906. This was caused by one of the worst mining disasters in the history of France, which killed 1,200 miners. There was a threat of the outgrowth of traditional labor conflicts among street workers.

The party of radicals quickly came to this place, as it decided to show itself a wise political force, created at once to carry out necessary reforms and ready to show cruelty for the sake of preserving the common world.

At the parliamentary elections of 1906, the radical party became even more powerful. Georges Clemenceau (1906–1909) became the head of the ministers. The figure is striking, extraordinary, and he immediately jumped to voice that it would be better to carry out the work of reforming the marriage in a proper way. It turned out to be much easier to declare this idea than to create it. True, one of the first steps of the new order was the creation of the Ministry of Pracia, which was entrusted to the “independent socialist” Vivian. This, however, did not pose a problem with the stabilization of labor resources. Throughout the country, violent labor conflicts flared up from time to time, and more than once they escalated into conflict with law enforcement forces. Without falling out of favor with the normalization of the social situation, Clemenceau sent a group of children to the exposition in 1909.

The new order was embraced by the independent socialist A. Briand. The law on workers and rural pensions was passed from 65 rubles, but this did not change the position of this order.

The political life of France was subject to great instability: every party represented in parliament could not pursue its own political line. These were the constant rumors of the allies, the formation of various party combinations, which fell apart during the first checks on the nationality. This situation persisted right up to 1913, when the presidential elections changed Raymond Poincaré What will we do to achieve success before the extinguishment of the creation of great and strong France. In general, it is obvious that he has tried to shift the center of political struggle from social problems in foreign politics and thus consolidate the marriage.

First world war.

U 191 3rd generation was elected by the President of France Raymond Poincaré. Preparation before the war became the main task of the new president. France wanted to turn Alsace and Lorraine in this war, seize it from Germany in 1871 and want the Saar basin. The remaining months before the start of the First World War were filled with intense internal political struggle and before France entered the war, making it a point to decide which course to take.

The First World War began on June 28, 1914. France entered the war on the 3rd sickle. The German command planned to defeat France as soon as possible, and then concentrate on the fight against Russia. The German armies launched a massive attack on Zakhod. At the so-called border battle, the stench broke through the front and began to attack the corners of France. In the spring of 1914 fate flared up on a grand scale fight on Marni, The result of which lay the share of the entire campaign on the Western Front. At the end of the battles, the Germans were defeated, and then thrown out of Paris. Bliskavich's plan to defeat the French army failed. The war on the Western Front became protracted.

To the cruel fate of 1916 The German command ordered the largest-scale offensive operation, trying to ask the important strategically-minded Frenchman Fort Verdun. However, despite the colossal efforts and enormous expenses, the German armies were never able to take Verdun. The situation that arose was tried by the Anglo-French command, which created the great offensive in 1916 operation near the Sommi River, where they first tried to take over the initiative from the Germans

However, in 1917, when the United States entered the war for the Entente, the situation became favorable for the opponents of Germany. The connection of the United States to the military forces of the Entente guaranteed the military superiority in terms of material and technical supplies. It is understood that the Germans were constantly working against them, in the birch-linden of 1918 they made a number of the most strenuous attempts to make a turning point in the course of the military operations on the Western Front. At the cost of great expenses, which completely exhausted the German army, it was allowed to approach Paris at a distance of about 70 km.

On June 18, 1918, the Allies launched an intense counterattack. 11 leaf fall 1918 Roku Germany capitulated. The peace treaty was signed at the Palace of Versailles 28 chervenya 1919 roku. France rejected the treaty Alsace, Lorraine, Saar coal basin.

Interwar period.

France was at the peak of its power. She had completely defeated her deadly enemy, she had no serious opponents on the continent, and in those days it was unlikely that in a little more than two decades the Third Republic would fall apart like a cardboard box. What happened that France was not only unable to consolidate its very real success, but as a result experienced the worst national catastrophe in the history of France?

Thus, France achieved victory in the war, but this success was dear to the French people. The fifth skin population of the region was mobilized into the army (8.5 million people), 1 million 300 thousand. The French died, 2.8 million people were injured, of which 600 thousand. became disabled.

The territory of France, where the battles took place, was seriously damaged, and even there the main industrial potential of the region was concentrated. The franc has doubled in value, and France itself has lost a huge sum to the United States - over 4 billion dollars.

The alliance has baked fire between a wide range of leftist forces and nationalists who were in power, including Prime Minister Clemenceau about those who are responsible for numerous internal problems. Socialists respected the need to collapse until a fair marriage was achieved, only in this case all the sacrifices that had been made to achieve victory would be justified. In order to more evenly distribute the hardships of the financial period, to ease the situation of the needy, to take the key parts of the economy under the control of the powers, so that they pay for all the prosperity, and not for the wealth of the university clan. Financial oligarchy.

The nationalists themselves different barley I was inspired by a good idea - Germany can pay for everything! The implementation of this goal does not require reforms, which will inevitably undermine the marriage, but rather its consolidation around the idea of ​​a strong France.

In 1922, Raymond Poincaré, who even before the war had established himself as a fierce opponent of Nimecchini, was favored by fate. Poincaré declared that the most important thing at the moment was to extract reparations from Germany in a permanent obligation. However, it was impossible to implement this in practice. Poincaré himself moved to this place within a few months. Then, after certain actions, they praised the decision to occupy the Ruhr region, which was completed in 1923.

However, the inheritance of this rock turned out to be completely different, having been transferred to Pkankara. There were no pennies from Nimechchini - until then they began to cry, but now they stopped coming and vugilla, which really hit the French industry. Inflation has increased. Under the pressure of the United States and England, France was forced to withdraw its troops from Germany. The failure of this adventure resulted in the regrouping of political forces in France.

The parliamentary elections in 1924 brought success to the Left Bloc. The leader of the radicals became the head of the order E. Errio. First of all, we have sharply changed the country’s foreign policy course. France established diplomatic relations with the USSR and began to establish contacts with the country in various fields. After the implementation of the domestic political program of the Left Bloc, the active support of conservative forces was called upon. The attempt to eliminate the progressive income tax, which posed a threat to the entire financial policy of the order, failed. The largest banks in France also entered into confrontation with the prime minister. The most radical party now has many opponents. On the 10th quarter of 1925, the Senate condemned the financial policy of the order. Errio praised his new importance.

During this period there was a period of administrative leapfrog - five orders changed during the river. In such minds, the implementation of the Left Bloc’s program appeared impossible. Vlitku 1926 rock The Libyan bloc disintegrated.

The new “order of national unity”, to which both representatives of right-wing parties and radicals have advanced, having abandoned Raymond Poincaré.

As his boss, Poincaré voted for the fight against inflation.

The government's expenditures for changes in the bureaucratic apparatus were significantly reduced, new taxes were issued, and great benefits were immediately given to employers. From 1926 to 1929 France had a deficit-free budget. Poincaré's regime succeeded in stopping inflation, stabilizing the franc, and reducing the growth of living standards. The social activity of the state was activated, benefits were introduced for the unemployed (1926), old age pensions, as well as benefits for illness, disability, and gravidity (1928). It is not surprising that the prestige of Poincaré and the parties that he promotes is growing.

In this situation, the 1928 parliamentary elections took place. As it turned out, the majority of the seats in the new parliament were won by the right parties. The successes of the right were largely based on the special prestige of Poincaré, but in 1929, due to his illness and confusion, he lost his seat and his politics.

The Third Republic was seriously in trouble again: from 1929 to 1932. 8 orders have changed. All of them were dominated by right-wing parties, which had new leaders – A. Tardiet and P. Laval. However, from these orders it was not possible to reduce the extent of the French economy.

This was the situation France faced until the final parliamentary elections in 1932, which culminated the recent creation of the Left Bloc. The order has cheered up E. Errio. We are immediately faced with a complex of problems generated by the world economic crisis. Every day the budget deficit increased, and food became more urgent in front of the government: where to get the money? The protest is against the plans for nationalization put forward by the communists and socialists, the low level of industry and the promotion of additional taxes on the great capital. In early 1932, the Chamber of Deputies endorsed his proposal to continue the payment of military taxes. The order of Hério fell, and the ministerial leapfrog began again, in which France suffered not only seriously, but also seriously suffered.

In the Ukraine, the positions of these political forces began to emerge, as they believed that democratic institutions had exhausted their capabilities and were likely to be abandoned. In France, these thoughts promoted low pro-fascist organizations, the largest of which were the “Action Française” and the “Fighting Crosses”. The influx of these organizations among the masses has quickly grown, but the stench of the smugglers in the ruling elite, in the army, and the police. In the midst of a severe crisis, they increasingly loudly and decisively declared about the failure of the Third Republic and about their readiness to take power.

At the end of 1932, fascist organizations sought to be reinstated to the Do order. Shotana. The prote order has overcome the hated rule of the radical socialist Ege. Daladier. One of the first steps was the imprisonment of the prefect of police, Chiappa, who was known to have fascist sympathies.

The rest of the comings are over. On the 6th of 1934, over 40 thousand fascist activists stormed the Bourbon Palace, sitting in parliament, with the looming intention of dispossessing him. Clashes with the police began, in which 17 people were killed and over 2 thousand were injured. They couldn’t get rid of the stench from the palace, but the order they didn’t like had fallen. Daladier replaced the right-wing radical G. Doumergue. There was a serious collapse of forces on the right. The threat of the establishment of a fascist regime really loomed over the country.

The anti-fascist forces, having forgotten about their supernatural powers, fought against the fascisation of the country. U lipni 1935 Roku Vinik Popular Front Communists, socialists, radicals, trade unions and low-level anti-fascist organizations of the French intelligentsia have descended into the same state of mind. A reversal of the effectiveness of the new union was the parliamentary elections that took place in the spring of 1936 - Popular Front candidates took 57% of the votes. The formation of the order was entrusted to the leader of the parliamentary faction of socialists L. Blum. Negotiations between representatives of the trade unions and the Foreign Confederation of Employers have begun. According to the minds of the achieved interests, wages were raised by an average of 7-15%, collective agreements became binding for all enterprises, which were run by trade unions, and, they decided, a series of requests to introduce low laws about labor to parliament total protection of workers.

At the beginning of 1936, the parliament praised the 133rd law with unprecedented speed, which instilled in life the main theses of the Popular Front. The most important thing to bring up is the law on the protection of the activities of the fascist leagues, as well as a series of socio-economic legislation: on the 40-year working day, on paid leave, on raising the minimum wage salary, about the organization of public works, about the delay of payments for cow crops for small businesses and their preferential lending, about the creation of the National Grain Bureau for the purchase of grain from villagers at fixed prices.

In 1937, a tax reform was carried out and additional loans were introduced for the development of science, education, and culture. The French Bank was placed under the control of the state, and the National Partnership was created. zaliznytsya With mixed capital, which has 51% of shares in the neighboring powers, it is decided that a low number of military factories have been nationalized.

These changes significantly increased the state budget deficit. Great entrepreneurs paid taxes and transferred capital across the border. The total amount of capital drawn from the French economy amounted, according to some estimates, to 60 billion francs.

The law was defended only by the military forces, but also by the political organizations of the fascist headquarters. The adherents of the fascist idea lost their lives very quickly. “Fighting Crosses” were renamed the French Social Party, “Patriotic Youth” began to be called the Republican National and Social Parties, and so on.

Vikorist and democratic freedoms, the pro-fascist press flared up a campaign for the persecution of the Minister of Internal Affairs of the socialist Salangro, who was driven to suicide.

In 1937, Blum presented to parliament a “financial recovery plan” that would increase indirect taxes, taxes on corporate income and introduce ordinary controls over foreign exchange transactions there.

After the Senate rejected this plan, Bloom praised the decision to introduce it.

The government managed to confirm with Svidomosti the idea that the worsening situation in the country is directly related to the “unprecedented social experiments” of the Popular Front. The rights affirmed that the Popular Front was preparing for the Greater Socialization of France. Only a sharp right-handed turn, reorientation to Nimechchina can turn the edge away from the one who has strengthened the right. The leader of the right, P. Laval, declared: “Better than Hitler, lower than the Popular Front.” This was gradually accepted by the majority of the political establishment of the Third Republic at the birth of 1938. As a result, everything was in trouble.

In the spring of 1938, the Daladian government, together with England, sanctioned the Munich Council, which gave up Czechoslovakia at the cost of Nazi Germany. Anti-communist sentiments prevailed in the eyes of significant parts of the French marriage to instill a traditional fear of Germany. In essence, the Munich Council paved the way for the outbreak of a new world war.

One of the first victims of this war was the Third Republic. 14 chervenya 1940 roku The German armies entered as far as Paris. Today we can boldly say: the march of the German army to Paris began in Munich. The Third Republic paid a terrible price for the short-sighted policies of its leaders.

It's too late for enlightenment. Hitler was just about to complete his preparations before launching a decisive strike on the Western Front. On May 10, 1940, the Germans, bypassing the defensive Maginot Line, prompted by the Franco-German cordon, invaded Belgium and Holland, and then advanced to Northern France. On the first day of the offensive, German aircraft bombed the most important airfields in these countries. The main strength of French aviation was reduced. Near the Dunkirk area, the 400-thousand Anglo-French grouping was reduced to a sharp point. However, with great difficulties and great expenses, it was necessary to evacuate these surpluses to England. The Germans were rushing towards Paris at that hour. 10 cherna line from Paris to Bordeaux. Paris, shocks from the “open place”, 14th century of occupation by the Germans without a fight. For a few days the order was cooled down Marshal Pétain, who suddenly went wild to Germany and chanted about peace.

In addition, representatives of the bourgeoisie and the higher-ranking officers opposed the capitulatory policy to the ranks. Among them was General Charles de Gaulle, who was at that time in London negotiating about military alliance with England. According to this radio station, before the French military servicemen, who were stationed outside the metropolis, many patriots united in Russia “Vilna France” to fight for the national revival of Fatherlandism .

22 chernya 1940 rock in Komp'ensky forest The act of surrender of France was signed. In order to humiliate France, the Hitlerites forced them to sign this act in the same car in which, in the fall of 1918, Marshal Foch dictated a truce to the German delegation. The third republic fell.

Apparently before the truce, Germany occupied 2/3 of the territory of France, including Paris. The western part of France formally lost its independence. The small town of Vishya was chosen as the residence of the Peten dynasty, which began to work closely with Germany.

The food is coming: why would Hitler want to formally preserve part of France’s sovereignty? Behind this is a completely pragmatic view.

First of all, in this manner it is unique in the presentation of food about the share of the French colonial empire and the French military fleet. Once the independence of France was completely liquidated, the Germans would hardly have been able to prevent military sailors from sailing to England and would not have been able to prevent the transition of the great French colonial empire And the army is under British control.

And so the French Marshal Pétain categorically defended the fleet and the colonial forces from depriving them of their bases.

In addition, the emergence of a formally independent France galvanized developments Ruhu Oporu What was behind Hitler’s preparations before the crossing of the English Channel was now even more relevant.

Peten was voted by the same head of the French state. The Vlada of France was committed to supplying Germany with milk, food and labor. The economy of the entire region was placed under German control. French armored forces pushed forward the disarmament and demobilization. The Hitlerites received a great amount of military materials.

Later, Hitler ordered the occupation of modern France, after which the French colonial army at its core, in accordance with Pétain’s orders, switched to the side of the allies.

On the territory of France, the Rukh of Opor flared up. On September 19, 1944, French patriots rose in revolt near Paris. When the Allied forces reached Paris on the 25th September, most of the place was liberated.

Despite the fate of the occupation, the bombing from the war and the military actions left France with great riots. The economic sector of the region will be even more important. General Charles de Gaulle, whom most French people respected as a national hero, greeted the order. One of the most important goals of most of the French was to punish the collaborationist citizens. Laval was shot, aka the death penalty, Pétain was replaced with pre-violence, and many lower-ranking soldiers were licked from the payment.

In the early 1945s, elections were held before the Constitutional Assembly, which would create a new constitution. The stench brought victory to the left forces: the PCF (French Communist Party) received the most votes, while the SFIO (French Socialist Party) lost a few.

The order has cooled down de Gaulle, becoming your intercessor Maurice Thorez. The Communities also took over the portfolios of the Ministers of Economy, Industrial Production, Industry and Trade. From the initiatives of communist ministers in 1944-1945 pp. There were nationalized power plants, gas plants, coal mines, aviation and insurance companies, major banks, Renault automobile factories. The rulers of these factories took away the great material wealth of the wine city, behind the blame of Louis Renault, who sprang with the Hitlerites, who ended in suicide. While Paris was starving, three quarters of the population did not have enough to eat.

At the Establishment Meetings, a fierce struggle flared up over the nutritional character of the future sovereign order. De Gaulle insisted on the limited power in the hands of the President of the Republic and the shortening of the prerogatives of parliament; bourgeois parties stood for a simple renewal of the constitution of 1875; Communists respected that the new republic would be truly democratic, with a re-established parliament that expressed the will of the people.

Convinced that it was impossible to accept the constitutional draft given the current state of the Statutory Duties, de Gaulle resigned in 1946. A new tripartite system was formed.

After a tense struggle (the first draft of the constitution was voted on in a referendum), the legislative assembly developed another draft, which was confirmed by popular vote, and the constitution, as of 1946, was in full swing. France voted for “a single and indivisible secular democratic and social republic,” with sovereignty resting with the people.

The preamble contained slightly progressive provisions about the equality of women, about the rights of individuals, re-examined in the Fatherland for action against freedom, on the political side of France, about the right of all citizens to free themselves from work and mothers. Alne security in old age. The Constitution called for not to wage wars of conquest and not to oppose forces against the freedom of any people, declared the need for nationalization of the key issues of industry, economic planning, and the participation of workers in management. nni enterprises.

Legislative power rested with the parliament, which consists of two chambers - National Assembly and for the Republic. The right to approve the budget, end the war, establish peace, determine trust and distrust in the order was given to the National Elections, and the Rada of the Republic could no longer assign authority to the law.

The President of the Republic gathered in 7 chambers in both chambers. The president appoints one of the party leaders as the head of the order, who has the largest seat in parliament. The structure and program are subsequently confirmed by National Elections.

The Constitution declared the transformation of the French colonial empire into the French Union and declared the equality of all territories included in it.

The Constitution of the Fourth Republic was progressive, and its praise meant the victory of democratic forces. However, many of her freedoms and claims turned out to be invalid or destroyed.

U 1946 the movement has begun war in indochina, which has affected all sorts of fates. The French once again called the war in Vietnam the “Brutal War.” The outpouring of supporters of the world was inflamed, and in France it assumed a particularly wide scope. The robotics were inspired to attract the bomb to be sent to Vietnam, under the Stockholm beasts, which would require the protection of the nuclear shield, 14 million French people signed up.

U 1949 Roci France entered into NATO.

U travni 1954 fate France knew the misery of defeat in Vietnam: detachments near the Dien B'en Phu area, the French garrison capitulated 6 thousand. soldiers and officers surrendered in full. On June 20, 1954, fate was signed to promote peace in Indochina. The “Blood War”, in which France spent an astronomical sum - 3000 billion francs, wasting tens of thousands of lives, has ended. France also wanted to withdraw its troops from Laos and Cambodia.

On November 1, 1954, France began a new colonial war, this time against Algeria. The Algerians repeatedly attacked the French order to give Algeria the desire to have autonomy, but they invariably rejected the idea that Algeria is not a colony, but an organic part of France, and “overseas departments”, and therefore cannot lay claim to autonomy. The fragments of peaceful methods did not produce results, the Algerians rose up to fight.

The rebellion grew and suddenly swept over the entire country, the French order could not strangle it. The stormy rallies and demonstrations that flared up in Algeria spread to Corsica, the metropolis stumbled under the threat of a huge war and a military coup. 1 ruble 1958 The national elections took place Charles de Gaulle the head of the order and gave him supreme importance.

De Gaulle began what he was unable to achieve in 1946 - the proclamation of a constitution, which indicates his political views. The President of the Republic relinquished his great power and reduced the prerogatives of Parliament. Thus, the President determines mainly the internal and external policies of the region, and the commander-in-chief of the armored forces, appoints for all the plantings, starting from the Prime Minister, he may dissolve the National And the collection and overshadowing the gained rank with laws praised by parliament. For supervising conditions, the president has the right to take full control of all power.

The Parliament, as before, consists of two chambers - the National Assembly, which is held behind the scenes, and the Senate, which replaces the Rada of the Republic. The role of the National Assembly has changed greatly: the order of the daily sessions is established in order, their time is shortened, and when the budget is negotiated, deputies cannot introduce proposals that would result in a change in income or an increase in income. in the state.

The prevailing distrust on the side of the National Assembly is complicated by the low level. The deputy mandate is unreasonable from the regional authorities, the government apparatus, trade unions and other national organizations.

A referendum was held on June 28, 1958, and the constitution was adopted. The Fourth Republic was replaced by Pyata. Most of the participants in the referendum voted not for the constitution, which many people have not read, but for de Gaulle, believing that he would be wise to restore the greatness of France, to end the war in Algeria, the ordinary Czech financial crisis, debt to the United States and parliamentary intrigues.

After the birth of 1958, members of parliament and a special board of voters elected president Fifth Republic General de Gaulle, the process of establishing the Fifth Republic was completed.

Pro-fascist elements hoped that de Gaulle would block the Communist Party, install a totalitarian regime and, having collapsed the French military regime on the Algerian rebels, achieve their pacification on the basis of the extinguish: “Algeria will always be French "Kim!"

However, given the strength of a political figure on a large scale and the healthy balance of power that had developed, the president took a different political course and, strictly speaking, did not go to the defense of the Communist Party. De Gaulle hoped that he would be able to get the French on his side.

The Algerian policy of the Fifth Republic went through several stages. At first, the new order was trying to solve the most pressing Algerian problems from a position of strength, but soon overextended itself, which their attempts would lead to nothing. The Algerian campaign is losing momentum, the French armies are seeing defeat after defeat, the metropolis is expanding its campaign to give Algeria independence, and in the international arena there is a broad movement of solidarity due to the struggle of the Algerian people. not in the isolation of France. The remnants of the prolongation of the war could lead to a new loss of oil to Algeria, and with it the oil, the French monopolies began to act in search of a pleasant compromise. The culmination of this turn was de Gaulle’s recognition of Algeria’s right to self-identification, which gave rise to a low level of terrorist activity from the side of the ultra-colonists.

And yet, on March 18, 1962, the city of Eviani signed a treaty granting independence to Algeria. The French order, in order to eliminate new soldiers, had to give independence to a number of powers in Equatorial and Western Africa.

In the spring of 1962, Roque de Gaulle called for a referendum with a proposal to change the order of protection of the President of the Republic. It is clear that before this bill, President Mav decided not to refer to the college of voters, but to illegal votes. The reform is small, but it is more important to understand the authority of the president of the republic and to eliminate the remaining surpluses of his debt to the parliament, the deputies of which took their share from him.

De Gaulle's proposals were opposed by many parties that had previously supported him. The national elections resulted in distrust among one of the president's closest allies, Georges Pompidou. At the confirmation, de Gaulle dismissed the elections and announced new elections, threatening to once again undermine his project and defeat the government.

The referendum, supporting the president's proposal, after the elections, the majority in the National Assembly was saved by the henchmen of General de Gaulle. The order has once again emboldened Georges Pompidou.

In 1965, the election of the President of the Republic took place, which was the result of illegal voting. It was left to our forces to find out about the hanging of a strong candidate. He became the leader of a small left-bourgeois party, François Mitterrand, a member of the Oporu movement, one of the few non-communists who opposed the regime of a special government. In another round of voting as President of the Republic at the beginning of this year, 55% of the votes again elected the 75-member General de Gaulle, and 45% of the voters voted for Mitterrand.

In the sphere of foreign policy of Ukraine, General de Gaulle tried to ensure the growing role of France in to the current world, it has been transformed into an independent great power, in order to counter the competition of other powers in the light markets. For this reason, de Gaulle demanded that we first break away from the American tutelage and unite continental Western Europe under French hegemony, opposed to the United States.

Having initially placed a bet on trade between France and the FRN within the framework of the European Economic Partnership (EEC, “Spielny Market”), they are confident that in exchange for political support from the side of France, Zach It is important to assume a key role in this organization. In this perspective, there was a rapprochement between France and the FRN, which began in 1958 and took the name of the “axis” Bonn - Paris.

Nonobar, one, it became obvious, the FRN did not go to the franzi of the Persian by a script in є і і ​​і І і і і і і il navigati, the piditrim of the boka boku in the lunar, and the nyzhs with the side of the franziya. Rushing between the edges, everyone was making noise. Thus, the NRF advocated the admission of England to the EU, and de Gaulle vetoed this decision, calling England “the Trojan horse of the USA” (since 1963). There were other leaks that led to progressive weakening of the Bonn-Paris axis. The Franco-German “friendship”, according to de Gaulle, “sang like a Trojan,” and began to explore other ways to value the foreign political positions of France. These new paths have emerged in the neighboring countries of Converging Europe, directly ahead of the Radyansky Union, and in pursuing a course towards defusing international tensions, which de Gaulle had not previously praised.

In the bitter 1966, de Gaulle praised the decision to withdraw France from the military organization of the Atlantic bloc. This meant the withdrawal of French troops from NATO command, the evacuation from French territory of all foreign troops, NATO headquarters, warehouses, airbases, etc. THAT. Until the 1st quarter of 1967, everything was closed, despite the protests and pressure on the side of the United States, France lost its membership in the political union.

In the inner life of the region, over time, rich fates were brewing, which flowed in the grass-cherry of 1968. into one of the largest popular revolutions in the entire history of the region.

The first to come were the students, who had benefited from the pre-Burban system of great illumination. On the right, throughout the 50s and 60s there was a rapid increase in the number of students, aka Vishcha school appeared unprepared for such growth. Waste depositors, initial offices, housing, libraries, allocations for things are illuminated were meager, scholarships were awarded to less than a fifth of students, so nearly half of your students were working hard.

The academic system has not changed since the 19th century - often professors read not those who had learned from life and science, but those who knew.

May 3, 1968 Called by the rector of the Sorbonne, the police dispersed the student rally and arrested a large group of its participants. Finally, the students voted strike. On May 7, a mass demonstration with the aim of unfailingly arresting those arrested, removing the police from the university and renewing employment was attacked by great police forces - on this day, over 800 people were injured and nearly 500 were arrested. shouted, in response to a sign of protest, the students began to spordjuvat barrika. On the 11th of May, a new battle was received from the police. Students barricaded themselves outside the university.

The reprisal against the students caused a stir throughout the country. On the 13th of May, a blatant strike of solidarity with the student movement began. From this day on, although the student's delusions were still tormented, the initiative of the revolution passed into the hands of the workers. The one-day strike has grown over the trivial strike, which has destroyed many other countries and expanded throughout the entire country. Solidarity with the students was also a driving force for the protestors to come forward, as they had long-standing and very serious complaints against the regime. Before the strike, engineers, technicians, and service workers became involved; The strikers were radio and television workers, employees of various ministries, department store salespeople, communications workers, and banking officials. The number of strikers reached 10 million.

As a result, until the middle of the day, the strikers were able to be satisfied with the maximum of all their benefits: the amount of the minimum wage was doubled, the burden of work was shortened, and the amount of benefits and pensions increased ii, collective bargaining agreements with enterprises were reviewed at the expense of workers, the rights of trade unions at enterprises were recognized, student education was introduced the greatest initial mortgages.

According to the hope of the order of the entrepreneurs, the actions of 1968 did not lead to the extinction of the class struggle. Between the months of 1968 and the beginning of 1969, the quality of life increased by 6%, which was significantly due to the conquest of the working people. In connection with this, workers continued to fight for lower taxes, higher wages, and the introduction of a loose wage scale, which transmits automatic increases to rising prices around the world. On the 11th of February 1969, there was a massive strike, and anti-government demonstrations took place in Paris and other places.

In this situation, Chal de Gaulle passed a referendum on two bills for the 27th quarter - on the reform of the administrative structure of France and the reorganization of the Senate. It is possible to introduce them without a referendum, through the humble will of the parliamentary majority, and de Gaulle would try to test the power of his government, threatening that in the event of a negative result of the referendum, he would submit an amendment.

The result was that 52.4% of referendum participants were against the bills. On the same day, General Charles de Gaulle retired from military service, no longer took part in political life, and on November 9, 1970, he died in 80 years.

General de Gaulle was, of course, a prominent political figure and had many merits for France. Having played a great role in the fight against fascism at the time of the Second World War, having warded off the revival of France during the first war, and after his second coming to power in 1958. having achieved an increase in the independence of the region and increased international prestige.

But with fate, the number of French people who encouraged him steadily fell, and de Gaulle could not come to terms with this. We understand that the results of the presidential referendum of 1969 were a direct successor to the grass-cherry elections of 1968, and in the new year the courage of the child from the prison of the President of the French Republic was lost, and he won the right to lose his right to breastfeeding 1 972 roku.

The vibori of the new president was assigned to 1 lipnya. In the course of another round I will overcome Georges Pompidou candidate from the party of the ordinary coalition.

The new president of the republic importantly preserved de Gaulle’s course. Foreign policy may have changed. The US has launched a pompous attempt to turn France towards NATO, actively opposing many aspects of American policy. However, Pompida was opposed to accepting England at the Spilniy Market.

In 1974, the President of the Republic, Georges Pompidou, quickly died, and pre-Russian presidential elections took place in the country. I will help another round by obtaining the leader of the local party "Federation of Independent Republics" Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. This former President of the Fifth Republic is not naked, but the majority of the National Assembly belonged to the naked people, who happened to be recognized as Prime Minister of a representative of this party. Jacques Chirac.

Among the reforms of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing can be called: lowering the voting age to 18 years, decentralization of radio and television management, increasing pensions for the elderly, simplifying the separation procedure.

The President of the United States emphatically declared that France is a reliable ally of the United States. France ceased to oppose the prospects of political unification of Western Europe, and was ready to take part in the elections of the European Parliament in 1978, which gave it supranational prerogatives. For the sake of rapprochement with the FRN, it was decided to look forward to the holiday of the Day of Victory over Nazi Germany, which caused heated protests among the community. However, the decision weakened the Franco-German tensions.

The history of France, located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Advantageous physical-geographical position, proximity to seas, abundant reserves natural resources They wanted France to be the “locomotive” of the European continent throughout its history. And such a land is being lost immediately. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic in the 21st century is losing a power whose history is being created today.

Roztashuvannya

The land of the Franks, which is called France from the Latin translation, is in Europe. The borders of this romantic and beautiful region are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The shores of France are washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is surrounded by mountains, plains, beaches, and forests. Among the Malovniki nature there are numerous natural, historical, architectural, cultural monuments, ruins of castles, ovens, fortifications.

Celtic period

At the 2nd thousand minutes to the star. That is, Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the present French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls and Celts Gaul, which was part of the adjacent province of the Roman Empire.

At 7-6 tbsp. Before our era, the Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Galya on ships, and settled colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In the present place there are such places as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Galiya was buried by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During the hour of the Roman panic, other events arose in the history of the peoples of future France:

• In the 3rd century of our era, Christianity penetrated into Galiya and began to spread.
• The invasion of the Franks, which subjugated the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemani, Visigoths and Huns, who finally put an end to the Roman rule.
• The Franks gave names to the peoples who dawdled in Gaul, created a first power here, and founded a first dynasty.

Even before our era, the territory of France became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from day to day, from day to day. All these tribes lost their traces in the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. It was the Franks themselves who were the most affected, as they were able to not only drive out the Romans, but to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

First rulers of the Frankish kingdom

Humanism is of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly evident in the castles built near the Loire River valley. Castles, which in this part of the country were built in order to protect the kingdom, began to be transformed into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich moldings and decor, and the interior was changed to look luxurious.

Also, Francis the First was blamed and the Drukharship began to develop, as it stuck on the mold French language, cinema and literature.

Having replaced Francis the First on the throne, his son Henry the Other, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was forgotten by the current military campaigns, despite the fact that they were against England. One of the battles that all historians write about, dedicated to France in the 16th century, was the Battle of Calais. Not less familiar are the battles of the English and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry defeated from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was friends with Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. Queen Keruvala would be the last one, if there were three of them on the throne:

• Francis the Other,
• Charles the Ninth,
• Henry the Third.

Francis ruled for only a century, and then died of illness. Inherited by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother. They remembered Charles as a zealous champion of Catholicism. They gradually re-examined the Protestants, who rejected the name Huguenots.

On the night of 23rd to 24th September 1572, Charles the Ninth ordered the purging of all Huguenots from France. This idea lost its name, the fragments of the killing were recovered on the eve of St. Day. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died, and Henry III became king. His opponent in the fight for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen, because he was a Huguenot, which did not control most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th–19th centuries.

These centuries were even more turbulent kingdoms. The main ideas can be listed as follows:

• In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, ended in France. The Huguenots became full members of the French partnership.
• France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty-Four War of 1618–1648.
• The kingdom experienced its golden age in the 17th century. for the reign of Louis the Thirteenth, as well as the three cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
• The nobles gradually fought against royal rule for the expansion of their rights.
• France 17th century gradually faced dynastic wars and internal wars that fueled the power in the middle.
• Louis XI drew the country into war for the Spanish Fall, which led to the invasion of foreign powers into the territory of France.
• King Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth gave great respect to the creation of a strong army, which allowed them to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
• At the end of the 18th century, France began with the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of a dictatorship.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon voted France an empire.
• In the 1830s rocks. An attempt was made to revive the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848, a revolution called the “Spring of Nations” broke out in France, as well as in other countries of Western and Central Europe. The legacy of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of another republic in France, which existed until 1852.

Another half of the 19th century. Bula was no less tsikavoy, no less persha. The Republic was overthrown, and in its place the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was established, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which led to the establishment of the Third Republic. Vaughn woke up until 1940. For example, the 19th century. The government of the region pursued an active foreign policy, engaged in the creation of new things in different regions of the world:

• in Pivnichny Africa,
• Madagascar,
• Equatorial Africa,
• Western Africa.

Drawing back to the 80s and 90s. 19th Art. France was steadily moving away from Germany. The supernatural relations between the powers became dark and complicated, which called for the strengthening of the country one after the other. France found allies in England and Russia, which sealed the Entente war.

Peculiarities of development at the 20–21st stage.

The First World War, which began in 1914, became a chance for France to turn its attention to Alsace and Lorraine. The idea behind the Treaty of Versailles was to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the cordons and territories of France were in constant crisis.

During the interwar period, the region took an active part in the Paris Conference and fought for areas of expansion in Europe. Tom actively took part in the affairs of the Antanti region. Zokrema, together with Britain, sent her ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the Ukrainian People's Republic to oust the Bolsheviks from and its territory.

With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Rumania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s rocks. Diplomatic bonds were established with the Radian Union, and a non-aggression treaty was signed with the Kerivnitsya government. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France attempted to create military-political alliances with the European powers. Ale from the attack of Nimechchina near the grass 1940 r. France did not lie. Over the course of many years, the Wehrmacht invaded and occupied all of France, installing a pro-fascist regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944, under the influence of the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

Another World War hit the political, harmonious and economical life of France more painfully. The Marshall Plan, the country's participation in economical European integration processes at the beginning of the 1950s, helped get out of the crisis. Europe was fired up. In the 1950s France abandoned the colonial rule in Africa, which gave independence to many colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency, which defeated France in 1958. Under the new rule, the Fifth Republic of France was voted out. De Gaulle made the country leaders on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed married life republics Zokrem, women were denied the right to vote, to start a profession, to acquire a profession, to create government organizations and governments.

1965 r. The country first robbed the head of the state of the way of the Zagalny vote. De Gaulle became president, having been in power until 1969. After New Year, France had the following presidents:

• Georges Pompidou – born 1969–1974;
• Valerie d'Estaing born 1974–1981;
• Francois Mitterrand born 1981-1995;
• Jacques Chirac – 1995–2007;
• Nicholas Sarkozy – 2007–2012;
• Francois Hollande – 2012–2017;
• Emmanuel Macron - from 2017 to today.

After the Second World War, France developed an active partnership with Germany, which became the driving force of the EU and NATO. The order of the region from the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, neighboring countries, Asia. The rule of France gives support to the large number of colonies in Africa.

Today France is a European country that is actively developing, as a participant in many European, international and regional organizations, contributing to the development of the light market. There are internal problems in the country, but a successful policy has been thought out and the new leader of the Republic, Macron, is developing new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in line with social trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants can live comfortably in France.

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and establishment of the empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 rock and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, which gradually turned into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded by cheap English goods; To what extent did the weaknesses and natural hardships reach the point that they led to the destruction of the crops and vineyards. In addition, France had already spent a lot in the recent war and in support of the American Revolution. There was no income (until 1788, spending exceeded income by 20%), and the treasurer took positions, hundreds of dollars, for which she could not afford. The only way to increase the supply to the treasury was to reduce the tax privileges of the first and the other. Under the Old French Order, the marriage was divided into three camps: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - all others. The first two camps had a number of privileges, including the need to pay taxes..

Attempts to secure the tax privileges of the first two camps failed, forming the basis of the noble parliaments Parliamenti- Before the revolution, there were judges in fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, there was only the Parisian Parliament, then thirteen members appeared.(Totally the greatest judges of the period of the Old Order). Todi also voted about the call of the General Staff General States- a body that included representatives of three states and responded to the initiative of the king (usually to provoke a political crisis). Kozhen Stan sat together and spoke one voice at a time. Before that, representatives of all three camps entered. Unbelievable for the crown, there was a wide public response: hundreds of pamphlets were published, the elected officials issued instructions to the deputies: few had broken the revolution, but everyone was encouraging change. The newly-possessed nobility received financial support from the crown, and at the same time provided insurance for the exchange of their rulers; the villagers protested against the rights of the lords and were determined to seize the land from power; Among the townspeople, the ideas of educators about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to landings became popular (in 1789 a brochure by the abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes was published, which gained wide popularity, “What is it that rubs є stan? ", which replaced the offensive passage: "1. - Everything. 2. What was it all about in political affairs? - Nothing. 3. What does it mean? - Status"). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment era, it is important to note that the greatest power in the country is the mother nation, and not the king, that the absolute monarchy can be replaced by a monarchy, and that the traditional right can be replaced not a constitution - a collection of clearly defined laws, the same for all citizens.

The Great French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy

The storming of the Bastille on June 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Uel. 1789 r_k

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Cob of the General Staff

Voting of National Elections

Storming of the Bastille

Accept the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Acceptance of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the States General took place near Versailles. According to tradition, when voting, each person votes one vote at a time. The deputies from the third camp, of which there were twice as many as the deputies from the first and the other, demanded individual voting, otherwise the order was not at a premium. In addition, contrary to the opinions of the deputies, Vlada brought financial changes to negotiations. On the 17th of June, deputies from the third camp voted for the National Assembly, representing the entire French nation. 20 worms swore an oath not to disperse until the constitution was destroyed. Just an hour later, the National Assemblies voted for themselves the Establishment Assemblies, thus declaring their intention to create a new power structure in France.

Just outside of Paris, we heard a little about those that the army is gathering to Versailles and plans to dismiss the installation fees. A rebellion broke out in Paris; 14 linden, succumbing to the zbra, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic cause is regarded as the beginning of the revolution.

After this, the Assembly meetings gradually changed to the highest power in the country: Louis XVI, who tried to avoid bloodshed at all costs, quickly confirmed some of his decrees. In this way, from 5 to 11 September, all villages became especially free, and more than two camps and surrounding regions were confined.

The fall of the absolute monarchy
On September 26, 1789, the Constitutional Assembly praised the Declaration of the Rights of the People and the Common Man. On the 5th of June, they attacked Versailles, where Louis XVI was located, and wanted the king to move with his family to Paris and praise the Declaration. Louis would have enough trouble - and France would no longer have an absolute monarchy. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constitutional Assembly on the 3rd spring of 1791.

Having adopted the constitution, the constitutional meetings were resolved. The laws now praised the legislative collections. The king's wife lost power from the king, who turned into an official who obeys the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer recognized, but were fleeced; Most of the churches were nationalized and sold off.

Symbols

"Freedom and jealousy, brotherhood." The formula “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité”, which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on the 5th of 1790 in the incredible promotion of Maximilien Robesp'ère - one of the most prolific French revolutionaries, in 1789 I will be in the General State since the third time.

Bastille. Until the 14th century, the Bastille, an ancient royal battle, had all these difficulties, so the assault was a symbolic rather than a pragmatic one, but they took it in the hope of finding a safe haven there. Following the decision of the municipality, the Bastille was taken and the building was destroyed.

Declaration of the rights of people and giants. The Declaration of Human Rights confirmed that “people are being populated and deprived of their free and equal rights,” and declared that people’s rights to freedom, power, security and oppression are natural and invisible. In addition, it enshrined freedom of speech, stamps, religion, and titles. Like the preamble, it dates back to the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

Strata of the king and established republic

The rest of the life of Louis XVI. Engraving from a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793 r_k

Wellcome Library

Chronology

The beginnings of the war with Austria

Tomb of Louis XVI

Cob of the National Convention

Strata of Louis XVI

On September 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian king Frederick William II and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's companion Marie-Antoinette) were under the pressure of the aristocrats, who played from France, signed a document declaring France. . Girondisti Girondisti- Gurtok, who swore to the deputies of the Gironde department, advocating further re-creation, but rather maintaining a decidedly deathly gaze. In 1792, many of them stood against the king’s passions. The republic's supporters rushed to save the Legislative Assembly before the war with Austria, which was declared on the 20th quarter of 1792. Once the French troops began to recognize the defeat, whose royal homeland was called.

The collapse of the constitutional monarchy
On September 10, 1792, a rebellion broke out, as a result of which Louis was felled and taken into custody for the sake of national interests. Legislative meetings laid down their new ideas: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For this purpose, a new legislative body was elected - the National Convention, having first voted France a republic.

A trial began in the chest, finding the king guilty of evil against the freedom of the nation and condemning him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March, written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (a military engineer, who also sang as a composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the La Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost this status to Napoleon and, allegedly, turned it back in 1879 to the Third Republic. Until the other half of the 19th century, it became an international song of the left support.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The fall of Robespierre at the National Convention on June 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870 r_k

Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin

Chronology

A decree to the Convention established the Superordinate Criminal Tribunal, which will later be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal

Creation of the Community Order Committee

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Praise for the Constitution of the First Rock, or the Montagnard Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Strata Robesp'er and yogo henchmen

Praise for the Constitution III. Formation of the Directory

Coup of the 18th Brumaire. Change of Directory by Consulate

Unrespectful of the king's stratum, France continued to experience misfortunes in the war. In the middle of the country they burned down the stabbings of monarchists. In the spring of 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which would judge “citizens, criminals and counter-revolutionaries,” and after it, the Committee of the Civil Order, which would coordinate the internal and external policies of the country.

The expulsion of the Girondins, the Jacobin dictatorship

The great influx of the Committee of the Community was taken away by the Girondins. Most of them, without supporting the king’s punishment and the introduction of extra charges, the deeds were convinced that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Supermounted with them Montagnari Montagnari— a clearly radical grouping that spiraled downwards onto the poor people of the world. The name is similar to the French word montagne - mountain: at the meetings of the Legislative Assemblies, members of this group took their place in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. They sent dissatisfied poor people against the Girondins.

On May 31, 1793, the fate of the Convention gathered together in order to exclude the Girondists who were called at the meeting. 2 thousand Girondins were put under house arrest, and 31 thousand of them were guillotined before the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to a huge war. While France was at war with many European powers, the constitution, adopted in 1793, never came into being: until the end of the world, the Convention established the “temporary revolutionary order of government.” Almost all the power is now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissars to the place, which were of minor importance. The Montagnari, who now had a great advantage in the Convention, stunned their enemies with the enemies of the people and condemned them to guillotine. The Montagnards laid off all seigneurial obligations and began to sell the lands of emigrants to the villagers. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which prices for essential goods could rise, including bread; To overcome the shortage, they had to forcefully collect grain from the villagers.

Until the end of 1793, most of the stabbings were strangled, and the situation on the front changed - the French army went on the offensive. The number of victims of terrorism has not changed. In the spring of 1793, the Convention adopted the “Law on Suspects”, which punished the arrest of all people who were not guilty of a crime or could commit it. Since the beginning of 1794, the Revolutionary Tribunal was obliged to obtain additional evidence from the defendants and legal counsel; For people who were convicted by the tribunal, they now faced only one punishment - stratification.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, robesp'erists began to talk about the need to remain in power in order to clear the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention realized that their lives were under threat. On June 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespere, and many of his followers were arrested by members of the Convention, fearing for their lives. 28 limes were spent.

After the coup, terrorism began to decline, Jacobin Club Jacobin Club- political club, creations of 1789 rock and a collection of the Jacobin monastery. Official name- Partnership of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies of the Establishment and Legislative Assembly, and then to the Convention; They played a great role in the terror policy that was carried out. it was closed. Vlada to the Committee of the Community has changed. Thermidorians Thermidorians- Members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. They voted for an amnesty, and before the Convention they turned in favor of Girondinism.

Directory

In 1795, the Thorish Serpnya Convention adopted a new constitution. Vidpovly, to the not -law, Vlad Bulo was handed over to the double -powered legis corps, and Viconavcha - the director, was stored with the Director, the Yakiki Rada Starіshin (the upper house of the Lawwal Corps) knew the list represented by Radoy P'yatisot (Nizhnyoya tent). Members of the Directory attempted to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not successfully: so, on June 4, 1797, the Directory, advocating under the admonition of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular in his later years the military successes in Italy, the parliament voted in Paris and annulled the election results from the Legislator Corps in the rich regions of France, the fragments in which most of them were losing their royalties, which were now beginning to create strong opposition.

Coup of the 18th Brumaire

A new spirit has ripened in the middle of the Directory itself. On the 9th leaf fall of 1799 (or the 18th Brumaire of the 8th century of the Republic), two of the five directors together with Bonaparte staged a coup, dissolving the Rada of Five Hundred and the Rada of Elders. The directory was also spared by the ruler. She was replaced by the Consulate, a rank that consisted of three consuls. All three smonovniks became them.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official ensign of France. Before white color The Bourbons, who served as ensigns before the revolution, were given the blue symbol of Paris and the chervon color of the National Guard.

Republican calendar. On the 5th of 1793, a new calendar was introduced, the first fate becoming 1792. All the months of the calendar have been given new names: the hours of the revolution will begin anew. In 1806, the calendar was skewed.

Louvre Museum. Regardless of the fact that many parts of the Louvre were opened for the expansion before the revolution, the palace of the full-fledged museum was rebuilt only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of an empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Fragment of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Yingre. 1803-1804 rocks

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Praise for the Constitution VIII, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

Acceptance of the Constitution of the Xth fate, which created the re-importance of the first consul by his predecessors

Praise for the Constitution of the 12th century, the vote of Napoleon as emperor

On the 25th of 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. Before the new government came into power, the order consisted of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and amounted to ten rocks (as the one-time inclusion of a third consul amounted to appointments of five rocks). The first of the three consuls was named Napoleon Bonaparte. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to promulgate new laws, appoint members of the State, ambassadors, ministers, high military commanders and prefects of departments. The principles of power and popular sovereignty were actually compromised.

In 1802, the State Rada submitted to a referendum a proposal about those who would serve as consul for Bonaparte forever. As a result, the consulate became permanent, and the first consul lost the right to designate an aggressor.

In the cruel fate of 1804, the monarchical spirit was revealed, the method of which was the killing of Napoleon. After this, proposals began to emerge to create Napoleon’s power in decline, in order to make it impossible to do the same in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the Constitution of the XII century was adopted, confirmed by a referendum. Control of the republic was now transferred to the Emperor of the French, which Napoleon Bonaparte had voted against. The Pope crowned the Emperor at his chest.

In 1804, Napoleon adopted the Civil Code - a set of laws that regulated the life of the citizens of France. The code has been confirmed, zokrema, the zeal of everyone before the law, the inadequacy of land power and the secular shlub. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: for the transfer of permanent recruitment to the army and villages, and in the city, he managed to reduce the number of working hands, which led to an increase in income. He brutally dealt with the opposition and curtailed freedom of speech. The role of propaganda became great, as it glorified the invincibility of the French battle and the greatness of France.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which featured an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bjola. This symbol dates back to the Merovingians, becoming a special emblem of Napoleon and replacing the lily in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. A coin was worn for Napoleon, named Napoleon d’or, literally “golden Napoleon”: it bears the image of Bonaparte’s profile.

Order of the Honorable Legion. Order, founded by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, to the fate of the butt of the licenser's orders. Affiliation with the order resulted in official recognition of special services to France.

Restoration of the Bourbons and Lipneva monarchy

Freedom, as we lead the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830 r_k

Musée du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Taking Moscow

Battle of Leipzig (“Battle of the Nations”)

Napoleon's speech to the throne, the proclamation of King Louis XVIII

Publication of the Charter of 1814

The meeting of Napoleon and Elbi

Taking Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon's Revelation

Gangway to the throne of Charles X

Signature of sticky ordinances

Masovі hvilyuvannya

Presentation of Charles X to the throne

Oath of the Duke of Orleans to the new Charter. From this day on, Louis Philippe I became King of the French

As a result of the Napoleonic wars, the French Empire transformed into a powerful European power with a stable power system and well-ordered finances. In 1806, Napoleon blocked all European countries from trading with England - as a result of the industrial revolution, England withdrew French goods from the markets. This is the name of the continental blockade that crippled the English economy, and until 1811, after the Great War, the economic crisis hit all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops in the Pyrenees region began to destroy the image of the insurmountable French army. It turns out that in early 1812 the French had the opportunity to gain access from Moscow, which had been occupied near the verna.

Restoration of the Bourbons
On June 16-19, 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, and the Napoleonic army was defeated. In the year 1814, Napoleon came to the throne and destroyed the exiled island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, the brother of the lost Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Vlada turned to the Bourbon dynasty, and Louis XVIII decided to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, which is why the new law established two chambers of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was again established, but not all citizens had the right to vote, and not all mature people had the right to vote, but only those who had a high level of wealth.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Congratulated by the fact that Louis XVIII had popular support, Napoleon departed from Elbe and landed in France on the 26th of 1815. Until then, a significant part of the army had been added, and a month later Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Having tried to make peace with the European countries, I was not able to achieve peace, and I had to enter into war again. On the 18th, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on the 22nd, Napoleon returned to the throne, and on the 15th, it surrendered to the English and was exiled to the island of Saint Helena. Vlada turned to Louis XVIII.

Lipneva revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Charles X took the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chamber of Deputies was still standing, Charles recognized the unpopular prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as minister of foreign affairs. 25 Lipnya 1830 King King Pidnonnice (decree, Mali Mali the power of sovereign law) - about Timchasovo Svobody Druku, the roser of the Palace of the deputy, the viborcho's census (now vocabulary could be liable) of the new vigors to the Lower Tales of the Charter. A lot of newspapers were closed.

The Ordinance of Charles X called forth the mass storm. On the 27th of July, turmoil began in Paris, and on the 29th of July the revolution ended, the main centers of the city were occupied by rebels. 2 serpn Charles X appeared before the throne and went to England.

The new king of France was Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, a representative of the young Bourbon family, who had a well-known liberal reputation. At the hour of the coronation, he swore allegiance to the Charter of 1830, drawn up by the deputies, and became not “King by the grace of God,” like his successors, but “King of the French.” The new constitution lowered not just the current, but also the age-old qualification for voters, relieved the king of legislative power, abolished censorship and turned the tricolor ensign.

Symbols

Lilia. After the fall of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle was replaced by a coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power even in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom, leading the people." The famous painting by Eugene Delacroix, in the center of which Marianne is depicted (from 1792 symbolizing the French Republic) with the French tricolor in her hand as a separate struggle for freedom, inspired by the Lipnevo revolution of 1830.

The Revolution of 1848 Rock and Establishment of Another Republic

Lamartine in front of the City Hall of Paris throws up the red ensign of the 25th year of 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoto

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

A cob of mass thiefs

Introducing the Gizo order

The establishment of a new constitution, which consolidated the republican form of government




Foreign presidential elections, victory for Louis Bonaparte

Until the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and the new Prime Minister François Guizot, adherents of the progressive and careful development and opponents of illegal electoral law, ceased to exercise power: some wanted the expansion of elections oh right, others - the return of the republic and the restoration of the right to vote for all . In 1846 and 1847 the harvest was rotten. Hunger has begun. Some rallies were suppressed, and in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which the monarchical regime was actively criticized and the republic was voted for. The fierce political banquets were fenced off.

Revolution of 1848 rock
The defense of political banquets evoked mass conspiracy. On the 23rd, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. The majestic army checked its exit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers who protected the ministry, having shot him, was killed for everything, and this gave rise to a bloody battle. After this, the Parisians set up barricades and destroyed the royal palace. The king presented himself to the throne and went to England. France declared a republic and granted the right to vote to people over 21. Parliament (having changed its name to “National Assembly”) once again became unicameral.

On April 10-11, 1848, the first presidential elections took place, in which Napoleon's nephew Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who took away about 75% of the votes, was uncontested. In the elections before the Legislative Assembly, the republicans took away more than 70 seats.

Symbols


Barikadi. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during the Skin Revolution, and during the revolution of 1848 there were barricades throughout Paris. Parisian omnibuses were used as material for barricades since the late 1820s.

Coup of 1851 rock and other empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855 r_k

Chronology

Dissolution of National Assembly

Implementation of the new constitution. By the changes made to this text on the 25th anniversary of the same fate, another empire was created

Pronouncement of Napoleon III by the Emperor of the French

The republicans no longer sought the trust of either the president, parliament, or the people. In 1852, the term of Louis Napoleon's presidential honor reached its end. The Constitution of 1848 can only be consulted once again after the end of the current controversial term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon several times demanded to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851 Roku
On the 2nd of 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who resorted to the support of the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested his opposition members. The deception that began in Paris and in the provinces was brutally suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, and presidential appointments continued for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was changed, and the deputies of its upper house were appointed by the president forever.

Renewal of the Empire
7 leaf fall 1852 appointment of Louis Napoleon to the Senate, renewing the empire. As a result of the referendum, the decision was confirmed, and on the 2nd of 1852 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the importance of parliament was quickly felt, and the freedom of the press was curtailed, but after the 1860s the course changed. To enhance his authority, Napoleon started new wars. We planned to convey the decision of the Vidensky Congress and conquer the whole of Europe, giving each nation a sovereign power.

Vote of the Republic
On the 4th of Wednesday, France was voted a republic again. A timely order was put in place, as if Adolphe Thiers had left him alone.

On the 19th spring the Germans laid siege to Paris. The place is hungry and the situation has become complicated. In 1871, elections were held until the National Assembly, from which most of the monarchies were taken away. Adolphe Thiers became the head of the order. 26 There was a fierce hesitation to sign the first peace treaty, following which there was a great parade of Germans on the Champs Elysees, which was greeted by many townsfolk as hell.

In Berezna, the order, which did not bear the cost, was inspired to pay the payment of the National Guard and tried to dissolve it.

Paris commune

On April 18, 1871, a rebellion broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On the 26th of February they held elections for the Paris Commune - for the sake of the city of Paris. Order on the side of Thiers at Versailles. Ale vlada komuni was wiped out for a short time: 21 herbs of the government military went on the offensive. Until the 28th of May, the uprising was bitterly suppressed - the day of fighting between the military and the communes was given the name “Crooked Year”.

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists was strengthened again, but since they were all supported by different dynasties, the republic was saved. In 1875, the people adopted constitutional laws that confirmed the post of president and parliament, which was established on the basis of the legal right of election for people. The Third Republic arose until 1940.

From that time on, the form of government in France was deprived of the republican form, finally allowing the power to change from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Chervony ensign. The traditional republican ensign was the French tricolor, and members of the commune, among whom there were many socialists, gave precedence to the single-colored red one. The attributes of the Paris Commune - one of the key elements for the formation of communist ideology - were adopted by Russian revolutionaries.

Vendôme Column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Colony of Vendôme, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875 the column was reinstalled.

Sacre Coeur. The basilica in the neo-Byzantine style was founded in 1875 in response to the riddle of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors thank Dmitry Bovikin for his assistance in working on the material.