Geopolitical theories about security issues briefly. Basic geopolitical concepts
Basic geopolitical concepts
Ratsel concept
So, geopolitics as a holistic concept, as a systematic combination of knowledge arose at the turn of the XIH and twentieth centuries at the junction of three scientific approaches. Its occurrence is due to, on the one hand, the logic of the development of the science itself. On the other hand, geopolitics appeared one of the ways to understand the changed social reality.
The essence of these changes analyzed Lenin in detail in its work "Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism" (1916). Revealing the content of the new stage of social development, he wrote: "Imperialism is capitalism at that stage of development, when the dominance of monopolies and financial capital has developed, acquired the outstanding importance of the export of capital, the section began a section of the world by international trusts and ended the partition of the entire land area by the largest capitalist countries." An objective researcher cannot not recognize that these factors specified by them in a decisive extent determined the course of world politics for decades ahead.
Thus, one of the signs of imperialism is the territorial section of the world on colonies and zones of influence between leading states. The "free" territories was not left, the world compacted. All regional "power centers" came to immediate contact. This sharply strengthened the voltage of the international situation, which in the end led to a fire of the First World War.
Especially acutely, the territorial question was for two great powers: the UK, which it was necessary to preserve his giant colonial empire, and Germany, "deprived" in the division of the world. Therefore, it is not surprising that the first geopolitical concepts that attempt to scientifically formulate the laws of political control over the geographical space arose in these countries.
The largest German geographer Friedrich Ratzel made a great contribution to modern geopolitics. Science, which is designed to explore the connection of the state and space, he called political geography (this term is often used and now along with geopolitics). The main provisions of the New Science Ratzel outlined in his essay "Political Geography" (1897).
Two ideas were put on them in the foundation of their reasoning. First, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe determining role of geographical factors for the development of society. "No matter how humanity has drawn into the highest empires," the scientist wrote, "his feet relate to the Earth ... This is primarily due to the need to consider the geographical conditions of its existence." Following Herder, he believed that the studies of external (geographical) and internal (historical) factors of the development of society should go hand in hand, for "only from the connection of the other may be a real assessment of our subject."
The second idea was perceived by him from the Darwinian theory of evolution. The state in his representation is living organic, connecting the properties of the people and the Earth and, like all organisms fighting for their existence. Being a living organism, the state moves and grows as a whole.
Ratzel formulated seven "basic laws of spatial growth of states" ", in his opinion, all state entities are subject.
1. The space of the state is growing together with the growth of culture.
2. The growth of states occurs simultaneously with the general development of the nation and is accompanied by the development of ideas, trade, people's activity.
3. The growth of states is carried out by attaching and absorbing small states.
4. Changes in the state of the state (growth and reduction) reflect its border, which Ratzel called the "peripheral authority of the state."
5. In the process of growth, the state seeks, first of all, to imagine "politically valuable" places: coastline, river beds, areas rich in resources.
6. The first impulse towards territorial growth comes to primitive member states.
7. The overall trend towards the merger moves from the state to the state, gaining power as the transition.
Ratzel argued that "States tend to grow into natural spaces", and this thrust can be satisfied only within the boundaries of the continents. The people are growing, increasing among the state, increasing its territory, joins new lands by internal and external colonization. "A new space in which the people grow is," Ratzel wrote, "as if the source from which the state feeling draws new forces."
Concept of Rudolph Chelen.
The ideas of the German geographer developed his follower Swedish political scientist Rudolph Chellen. In his main work, "the state as a form of life", based on the Ratsel methodology, he formulated " organic theory"States.
Like other organisms, said Chellen, states are born, develop, fade and dying, i.e. represent the forms of life. Their being is subject to the universal law of the struggle for existence. In the life of states, the struggle for existence is manifested in the struggle for space.
"Viable states, whose space is limited, - wrote Chellen, - subordinate to the categorical political imperative: to expand its territory by colonization, association or conquests of various kinds. In this position was England, and at present are Japan and Germany. As we see, there is not a spontaneous instinct of conquest, but the natural and necessary growth for self-preservation. "
Chellen put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe totality of the state. In his presentation, the state is the unity of five elements, which manifests itself as:
1. Physico-geographical spatial organism;
2. A certain form of economy;
3. Specific ethnic community;
4. Social community of classes and professions;
5. Form government controlled With its constitutional and administrative structure.
It all forms "five elements of the same force, like five fingers on one hand, which works in peacetime and fights in the military."
The essential contribution of the Swedish political scientist to the development of geopolitical knowledge was the formulation of the Avtarki law. The state, according to Chellen, should not be neither pure industrial or purely agricultural, because then it becomes the hostage to the policies of other states dependent on the world defold. From an economic point of view, the state to be stable must be self-sufficient.
It was Chellen that introduced the concept of "geopolitics" into the scientific circulation, which it determined as a doctrine, considering the state as a geographical or spatial phenomenon. He was distinguished from political geography, which, in his submission, is a science on habitat of human communities in their connection with the rest of the earth elements.
The concept of Karl Haushofer
The German tradition of geopolitical knowledge found in the face of Karl Haushofer. The leaving of the aristocratic Bavarian family, the son of a professor of political economy, a professional military, who has served to China Major General, he created a number of original geopolitical concepts that did not lose values \u200b\u200bto this day. In 1924, he was with a group of like-minded people (E. Ohrust, Lauthenza, O. Maul) founded the well-known organ of geopolitical thought "Journal Geopolitik" ("Zeitschrift Fur Geopolitik"), in which many problems were reflected. In the same year, the first conceptual work of Haushofer, dedicated to the geopolitical situation in the Pacific region, was published.
In 1928, the magazine publishers issued a collection of "geopolitics" elements, in which they gave their own deployed definition of this term. They wrote: "Geopolitics is a doctrine on the dependence of political events from the Earth. It relies on a wide foundation of geography, especially political geography as the teachings on political spatial organisms and their structure. Geography comprehended by the essence of earthly spaces gives geopolitics those framework within which the course of political events should be accomplished in order for them a long success.
Of course, media political life sometimes go beyond these frameworks, but earlier or later dependence on the Earth again and will give himself to feel. In the spirit of such an understanding, geopolitics seeks to give weapons for political activities and indicate the path in political life ... Geopolika strives and should become a conscience of the state. "
In complete agreement with Ratsing and Chellen, Haushofer considered space as determinant state Development. Under the influence of the famous Englishman Makunder, he saw the world in a state of permanent instability as the steel of the struggle of two political elements: maritime and continental forces. The search for the method of solving this conflict has led Haushofer to formulate the concept of pan-regions (Fig. 1).
Fig.1. Panlegional model of Haushofer.
In the work of "Geopolitics of Sukhakhday" (1931), he developed a model of division of the world into three superregions, oriented from north to south by meridians, each of which consisted of kernel and periphery: Pan America (core - USA), Eurafrica (core - Germany) and Pan-Asia (kernel - Japan, Peripherals - Australia). It should have been self-sufficient autarchy regions. The Haushofer model was focused on preventing world conflicts between the main power centers on the planet. However, it turned out to be an inoperable and first of all because the place Soviet Union It was not clear and his life interests were not taken into account.
After coming to power, Hitler Haushefer actively collaborated with the Nazis and enjoyed their support. This was explained not so much with a common ideological closeness as his personal friendship with the second person in the Nazi hierarchy Rudolph Hessom, who was with him a personal adjutant in the years of the First World War. Such circumstances led to the fact that after the collapse of fascist Germany, the name of Haushofer. His ideas and largely geopolitics itself as science were discredited in the eyes of a global public opinion and the scientific community. However, in fact, the geopolitical views of Haushofer and the leaders of the Third Reich were significantly dispelled. Evidence of this is its concept of the continental block.
In the late 1930s, Haushofer revises its global model, based on "Pan ideas", and develops a new one, which was set out in the work "Continental block: Middle Europe (Mitteleuropa) - Eurasia - Japan" (1941). The new model was focused on the strategic union of the three continental forces: Germany, the USSR and Japan, and three superregions grouping around them. Such a continental union was aimed against the "sea strength", i.e. First of all against the UK.
This work appeared, oddly enough, shortly before German attack on the USSR. "Operation of Barbarossa," the modern researcher writes, - was in complete contradiction with the arguments of Haushofer about a mutually beneficial continental block between Germany and the USSR and was a decisive political event, which showed that the Nazis used geopolitics only as a propaganda tool, but not as a science defining them Policy. "
From that moment began the sunset Stars of Haushofer. The flight of hess to England and the execution of the Son of Albrecht who participated in the antihythler conspiracy (also the famous German geopolitics) tried out the case. At the same time, the popularity of geopolitics in Germany occurred.
Halford Makinder Concept
No less contribution to the formation of science of geopolitics was made by the famous British geographer, the ancestor of the Anglo-American School of Geopolitics Halford Machinender. He belongs to the authorship of many terms used today in geopolitical studies. The circle of his interests was extremely wide. For some time, he taught geography in Oxford and the University of London, then headed the famous London School of Economic Sciences, and in 1919-1920 - during the Civil War in Russia - was appointed Supreme British Commissioner for the south of Russia.
On January 25, 1904, Makinder spoke at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society with a report "Geographical Assessment of History", which very soon made him famous. He suggested the fundamental division of the world into three parts: the "axial region" (Pivot AREA), the country of the Inner Crescent (Inner Crescent) and the country of the outer crescent (Outer Crescent) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. The first geopolitical model Makinder (1904)
The term "axial region" he designated the expanses of Eurasia, arguing that it was its continental array that "bordered by ice in the north, penetrated by rivers and consistent with the area of \u200b\u200b21,000,000 square meters. Mil "- there is the" geographical axis ", around which the historical process develops. And the border between land and sea regions of the Inner Crescent are the main arena of the struggle between the "Sushi Robber", controlling the continent, and the "sea robbers" that dominate the ocean expanses of the "external crescent". Such a struggle and is the main catalyst for all historical changes from ancient times.
Makinder was very disturbed that the central strategic position in the "axial region" occupies Russia, and "no social revolution will change its relationship to the great geographical borders of its existence." "Soberly understanding the limits of its power," Makinder said, "Russian rulers parted with Alaska, because for Russian politics is the actual rule not to own any oversized territories, just as for Britain - to rule on the ocean spaces."
Today, after the collapse of the USSR, it should be noted that thoughtless disregard for this golden rule became one of the main factors predetermined the collapse of the Soviet geopolitical block. Spraying forces around the world in pursuit of ideological miracles, Soviet leaders are not able to ensure proper control over political processes that occurred under their nose - in Moscow and Eastern Europe.
The big "inner crescent", according to the theory of Machineder, form Germany, Austria, Turkey, India and China. "External Crescent" includes Britain, South Africa, Australia, United States, Canada and Japan. To different historical epochs Various unions, military and political combinations may occur between these countries. But for global politics it does not have a decisive importance, because, said Makinder, "From a geographical point of view, they make something like a circlery around the axial state, which is always, one way or another is great, but having limited mobility compared to the surrounding border and island powers. "
The inner region of the Eurasian continent MacInder called the "Heart of the World" (Heartland), for he, remaining unattainable for the direct expansion of the ocean powers, is a geographical space, the outcome of the struggle for which the fate of the world. It is easy to see that throughout, at least three recent centuries, Russia was such an axial state, regardless of whether it was an autocracy, communist or, as now, pseudo-octic.
Modern Russian politicians have repeatedly noted that Makidder's appeals to eliminate the "Russian domination" over the core of Eurasia are extremely consonant with the ideas of the current haters of Russia like Brzezinsky or Kissinger. Repeating his theses that Russia will always strive to master the coastal regions of the continent with access to the warm seas, they see in our country the main threat to the well-being of the shopping west, whose power is based on the fact that it is he dominant over seaside spaces.
"From this point of view, it is quite fairly noted by a modern author, - optimal by solving problems that causes the very existence of a powerful Russian state to the West, is its gradual disintegration with the phased absorption of Siberia, the Urals and the Far East rich in the influence of New Eurasian State community with the center in Western Europe "or - add from yourself - generally overseas.
At that Makinder, it believed that the meaning of the "axial region" increases as the scientific and technological progress of human civilization.
Development of railway transport, he said, makes a continental power of no less mobile than maritime. It threatens a violation of the balance of power in favor of the "axial state". And if Germany also joins Russia as an ally, frightened by the British geopolitik, "soon before our gaze will be the world empire," which will forever undermine the power of the "ocean geopolitical block" of England and the United States.
In 1919, Makinder published the book "Democratic ideals and reality", in which several modified and clarified its concept. First of all, for the designation of the axial region, it began to use the term Hartland (Heartland), which became generally accepted by its compatriot Georgot J. Firagriv.
In the staff of Hartland, he turned on now Eastern and Central Europe. In this essay, he proposed the famous formula: "Who monitors Eastern Europe - dominates the Hartland, who dominates Hartland - controls the world island, who controls the world island - dominates the world."
The dominance of the world island (by the Eurasian continent) can only establish the continental power - Russia or Germany. Therefore, the Union of two these countries continued the most dangerous macinender.
To prevent such a scenario of world history, he offered to create a buffer zone from independent states between Russia and Germany. This, by the way, was made by the decisions of the Parisian peace conference, which contributed in 1919-20. The results of the First World War. Now the same idea is reanimated by international Russophobes under the brand of the "Chernomor-Baltic Union" of border with Russia countries that should create a kind of "sanitary cordon" between us and the "civilized" Europe consolidated under the "NATO nuclear umbrella" ...
The last reassessment of his views MacInder took in the midst of the Second World War in 1943 in the article "The Effect of the Worm Ball and the establishment of the world." He is also included in the "heart of the world", and the sugar, and the Arctic, and the subarctic territories of Siberia and North America (Fig. 3). The North Atlantic was announced by the Machinery "Mediterranean Ocean". The geopolitical division of the world now looked differently: not "continental - marine powers", but "Advanced Hartland - Mussonnyan Territories of India and China." He called the new model "the second geographic concept."
Fig. 3. The second geopolitical model Makinder (1943)
The revision of the macinender of its initial concept was associated, apparently with two circumstances. Firstly, the reality of world politics of the 20th century did not fit into its scheme: the continental powers entered into the world wars with marines. Secondly, the violent development received aviation as the most important means of communication is equal to sea and continental powers. And with the development of aviation, United Kingdom, for example, ceased to be a militarily island.
Interest in the geopolitical concept of Makinder in the XX century, it was silent, it flared up with new powers. After the collapse of the USSR, judging by the persistent promotion of NATO to Eastern Europe, comes the next Renaissance of his concept. At least the leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance operates in full compliance with the ideas of British geopolitics: to establish control over Eastern Europe to control Hartland. So it is to dominate the world ...
The concept of Nicholas Spaikman
In the middle of the 20th century, the Central Anglo-American School of Geopolitics moved to the United States. It was associated with an increase in the role of the United States in the world. R. Osthus-Hype, Vigert, D. Vilshi and other scientists, using Mahen's military-strategic ideas and the geopolitical concept of Machineder, developed the "American model" of the global structure of the world. But Nicholas Spikeman became the most famous American geopolitans. He formulated his concept in two works: "American strategy in world politics. United States and Balance of Forces "(1942) and" Geography of the World "(1944) (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Geopolitical Spikeman model (American Ring)
Like Haushofer and Makider, Spikeman comes from the traditional geopolitical division of the world to the continental and marine centers of forces. Just like his predecessors, he focuses on a conflict "buffer zone" between them. She, according to Spaiten, includes the periphery of the Eurasian Hartland, that is, Western and Central Europe, Turkey, the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Afghanistan, Peninsula, Indoostan, Tibet, Indochina, China and East Siberia.
He called this buffer zone by the Eurasian Roman (RIM - Rim, Edge, Ring; Land - Earth), i.e. Painted, or ring ground. In fact, it is geographic regionWhich Makunder is called the "inner crescent". In general, up to this point, all spikeman builds are quite trivial. A more or less original its theory becomes only when the American geopolitik offers its alternative formula of world domination instead of Makunderovskaya.
Here it is: "If the formula of political power is necessary, it should be like this: who controls Romand - dominates Eurasia; Who dominates Eurasia - controls the fate of the world. " The attentive reader can easily find that this formula is a kind of mirror image of a macineder concept. With the only difference that the Englishman considered the "heart of the world" the continental expanses of Russia, and the American insists that this heart beats on the expanses of the World Ocean.
Based on this background, Spikeman argued that not Russia, namely the United States occupies the central position in the world. They are addressed to both sides of Romans - through the quiet and atlantic oceans, and through the North Arctic - to Hartland. This unique geographical location allows them to simultaneously monitor maritime expanses and block the continental power of Eurasia, and therefore it makes it possible to decisively affect the course of affairs throughout the world.
Be that as it may, during the Cold War period, the United States acted on the basis of the Spikeman concept. Based on NATO military power, they launched a network of the military and naval databases of the USSR and its allies, i.e. The territory of the Eurasian Hartland. At the same time, American bases are located on an arc, an endless Eurasia, which accurately repeated the contours of the Spikementan Romans ...
During the Year of Cold War, the Anglo-American geopolitics developed very intensively. Among the most famous authors of that time should be called K. Gray, J. Renner, Kissinger, R. Klein. The most "solid" in a number of these authors is Saul Cohen. In the work "Geography and Policy in the Divided World" (1964), he proposed his model of the geopolitical structure of the world of the era of the fight two superpowers.
When it is constructed, Cohen operated on the concepts of geostrategic and geopolitical regions. Geostrategic regions are only two. In Cohen's terminology, this is: "Sea World Wondering", the core of which is the sea power of the United States with direct yields to three oceans, and the Eurasian Continental World, the core of which is the industrial area of \u200b\u200bthe Soviet Union (European part of the USSR, Urals, Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan).
The ocean geostrategic region includes, according to S. Koene scheme, four geopolitical regions: a) Anglo-America and the Caribbean, b) sea Europe and the countries of Maghreb, B) South America, d) offshore zone of Asia and Oceania. Continental, in turn, is divided into two geopolitical: a) Russian Hartland and Eastern Europe, b) East Asian continental region. South Asia Cohen allocated separately, believing that it potentially possesses the qualities of the geopolitical region and can become. There are two dividing belts between geostrategic regions: the Middle and Middle East, Southeast Asia. Cohen determined the separation belts as large, strategically important regions with a significant number of countries conflicting among themselves located in the collision of the interests of the superpower. The importance of these regions is that they allow you to control the strategic seaside pathways, have huge stocks of raw materials, terrain routes leading to strategically important areas of Eurasia are held through them.
Models of the world order
In addition to the Anglo-American and German schools of geopolitics in the 20th century, an independent French school, which was a mansion in the western tradition of geopolitical thought. Features of the French school: Attention to the spiritual and psychological parameters of the geopolitical system - it relates it to the Russian tradition of geopolitical thought. Already the founder of the French school Paul Vidal De La Blanche, in contrast to his contemporary German F. Ratseel, put forward in his concept as the main understandable "man", and not "space", "state" and "life interests".
The tradition of geopolitical thinking, laid down by the largest French scientists, developed and developed his followers, most significant of which are J. Ansel, J. Gottman, M. Fushe, I. Lakost. So one of the basic concepts of Jean Gothtman is the concept of iconography. This is a system of symbols that make up on the basis of religious features, the historical experience of a nation, which is reproduced in any physico-geographical conditions, and does not depend on them at all. That is why the French geopolitik believed that genuine political partitions between peoples are formed not form the form of the earth's surface, but the action of spiritual factors.
Perhaps the largest modern French geopolitics is Pierre Galua. He published in 1990 the fundamental essay "Geopolitics. The origins of power. " Following the traditions of French and, add, Russian geopolitics, P. Galua clearly separates geopolitics both from geographic determinism and political geography.
Modern geopolitical theory, unlike the classic, in his opinion, should expand the number of geopolitics elements. To traditional: geographical location, landscape, climate, population and its settlement, transport arteries, etc., - today you need to add weapons of mass destruction, which protects the advantages and disadvantages of the geographical position. The elements of modern geopolitics P. Galua also considers the majorization of society, the phenomenon of the mass behavior of people.
With the Russian geopolitical tradition of P. Galua Rodnit and a sober view of the coming prospects for the development of mankind. Who does not inspire the utopians of the upcoming liberal paradise, which draw F. Fukuyam and other singers of liberalism. If the leading powers will also carry out the former egoistic policy, then the world's world will not be the world of harmony and harmony, but the world of unbalanced and disorder.
Among the non-free schools of geopolitics arising from this century, the most serious are Japanese, Chinese and Brazilian schools. However, they did not have such an influence on geopolitical theory and practices as the Anglo-American, German, French and Russian traditions of geopolitical thought. In today, the volume of literature devoted to the problems of geopolitics is very impressive. And yet, considering the development of the geopolitical thought of the West in the current century, the entire variety of concepts can be reduced to five main theoretical models. Let's call them conditionally bipolar, peripheral, zonal, centralist and multipolar.
Representatives of the "bipolar model" allocate two geopolitical centers in the world, objectively in the state of inevitable constant confrontation. Classic example - Makunderovskaya concept of the confrontation of sea and continental powers. In the real world politics of the XVIII-XX century, the continental geopolitical block - Heartland - has always personified Russia, Ocean - Lands of Outer Crescent - alternately England and the United States.
Russian-British contradictions of the XVIII-XIX century on the Baltic and the Black Sea, in Persia and Afghanistan, as well as the Soviet-American confrontation between the last fifty years across the entire periphery of the Eurasian continent illustrate this theory.
The "zonal model" places a key geopolitical region for which the centers of world power are doomed to fight, in the zone of moderate and subtropical belts of the northern hemisphere. Accordingly, the boundary of the opposition of opposing geopolitical forces passes along the division of the North-South (these ideas were developed by A. Maehan, D. Fairgriv, K. Househofer, Kissinger). In reality, such a model almost completely repeats the previous one, since Eurasian (one can even say - Russian) peripherals for the most part coincides with the "zone of conflicts".
The "Mondialist Model" involves dividing the entire planet for:
a) the dominant civilization and geographical center of the "High Organized Space" (the country of the Western World);
b) the "technological zone" of raw materials and environmentally harmful industries, which ensures the needs of the Golden Billion, living in the West (the former USSR, most of Eastern Europe, the Middle and Mid-East, part of Southeast Asia and South America);
c) Penipheral, "useless" in terms of ensuring the interests of the West.
Such a model in the field of cultural and historical is based on the famous theory of the "end of history" Francis Fukuyama, in the field of political - on the concept of the world government, in the field of economic - on "market values" "Society of consumption" and in the field of sociology - on the ideas of a well-known modern researcher Y. Walleretain. Experience recent years It shows that this particular model is trying hard to realize world backstage on the wreckage of Soviet Svetherzhava.
The "multipolar model" proposes to consider the world of multipole. Power centers in such a world are shifted over time: the periphery of the current century becomes the core of the next. Offering this geopolitical model, the American scientist S.Ken sees the ideal of world order as a "dynamic balance".
Chapter 24 Geopolitics Theory
24.1. Number of geopolitical ideas
Geopolitical ideas passed a long historical development and testing practice. Geopolitical ideas also expressed philosophers and historians of the ancient world. Geopolitical thinking is visible in the exercises of the Middle Ages and the New Time. The geopolitical point of view was issued in their writings of Africa's figures. It passes the red thread in the theories of the industrial era and continues in post-industrialism. The conclusions of geopolitical science were based on such movements such as liberalism, conservatism, social democracy, communism, fascism, ecologism.
In the development of geopolitics as a scientific subdiscypline, three stages can be distinguished: 1 ) background geopolitics ; 2) classical geopolitics) 3 ) modern geopolitik .
At the first stage, which lasted from time immemorial until the end of the XIX century, did not yet exist a separate geopolitical branch of knowledge, the concepts of geopolitical; Geopolitical ideas were an integral part philosophical exercises, historical research and practical recommendations to the rulers. The predecessors of geopolitics (let's call them) expressed only certain ideas about the political structure of the world famous for them, they allocated separate spaces of the influence of certain powerful powers, determined their borders, made guesses about the reasons for the associations of states in the unions, clashes over the section and redistribute Okumens. You can call three such ideas. The first - described in the "History" of Herodota the fact of the conclusion of an allied agreement of the ancient Greek policies against the Power of Kerks and in general the eternal opposition of Ellinov and Varvarov. The second - the cause of the war between Athens and Spartah, which was the desire for hegemony in the zone of its interests, as well as in constant clashes of powerful land and marine powers. And finally, the third idea is the rules of conquest, settlement, devices of new territories and equipment boundaries in Arthasastra. At the same time, together with ingenious assumptions and guesses, they were expressed and completely unrealistic, sometimes fantastic ideas. The same Herodot, for example, the main cause of wars between Hellennas and Barbarians considered "Women's Wash".
Considering that two ideas, namely: the desire for hegemony and the desire for the conquest of new territories can be reduced to one, then the prehistory of geopolitics, as Kolossov Rhodes stood on two legs, was based on two main ideas:
The desire of powers to hegemony, conquest, expanding its borders, the development of new spaces;
The eternal opposition to the powers of the sushi and the sea, civilized and barbaric peoples.
24.2. Theories and schools of classical geopolitics
The stage of classical geopolitics lasted from the end of the XIX to the middle of the XX century. It was during this period that the definition of geopolitics as a separate branch of knowledge was given, an idea of \u200b\u200bits research was emerged, the main categories were proposed, and the main geopolitical concepts, theories and national schools of geopolitics were formed from individual ideas and assumptions of the previous era. In the spirit of that time, the classics of geopolitics even formulated geopolitical laws.
Each science, developing, is experiencing a period of apogee, the highest heyday, a kind of philosophical ACE. Proceedings of scientists who brought their science on the height unattainable before that, become classic, i.e., those samples that find many followers and which imitate; New generations learn from these samples. It was during this period that the scientists are recognized as scientists and all science not only a narrow circle of specialists, but also with the entire political elite and wide layers of the reading public. The legitimization of geopolitics as the science and the basics of practical policies began in the classical period, the initial point of which, according to many political scientists, were the work of F. Ratzel (1880-1910-E.). In such fundamental works as "anthropographography" ("nationwide"), "Earth and Life", he completed the efforts of the predecessors to create a state theory as a living organism and the borders of both the living bodies of the state, the theory of spatial growth of states, the concepts of communication of population with land and land and Soil, the concept of expansion of developed, advanced crops, the dependence of the power of states from the population density and the size of their territory. And the work "Political Geography" (1898), he laid the beginning of a new scientific discipline, which was called "geopolitics". Thus, Ratzel was simultaneously the last of the predecessors of geopolitics and the first geopolitic classic.
At the beginning of the XIX century. Geopolitical science developed by a high rate and quickly spread, first of all, in the European and American continents. Geopolitical ideas were especially attractive for great powers - large countries that occupied huge spaces (Russia, USA), for relatively small, but powerful in the military and economic sense of metropolis, creating giant colonial empires (United Kingdom, France), or for countries claimed to The status of great powers (Japan after the victory in the Russian-Japanese war), or in states who considered themselves with the disadvantaged deesemunicate conditions of the world (Germany after the First World War), or in the powers that felt their strength, but did not have time to the colonial section of the world (Germany after Associations and Franco-Prussian War, Italy after the risorman and the Franco-Austrian war). One of the main reasons for a splash of the popularity of geopolitics in a particular country was usually becoming a victory in the war, which always splits the nation, revives national culture, contributes to the spiritual and territorial expansion into neighboring countries, to other continents. But the defeat in the war can also become a catalyst for the creation and distribution of geopolitical theories. This process was observed, for example, after the defeat of Germany in the first and second world wars, after Russia's defeat in the Russian-Japanese war, after the collapse of the USSR and the loss of Russia of the huge territories populated by Russians.
The next reason for increasing the influence of geopolitics should be called the appearance of aggressive ideologies. Such ideologies, like English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Belgian, Dutch colonialism, American expansionism, Soviet communism, Italian fascism, German Nazism, Japanese militarism, directly called for the seizure and development of extensive spaces, expanding its borders at the expense of the territories of neighboring countries, spreading its influence on all continents of the Earth. It is important to note that the geopolitical representations of the classical period have always been associated with the development of the person of real, physical spaces of sushi, the sea and the sky, always relied on the military power of the state, which could not do not lead to the seizures and annexations of the territories, sections and resellers of the world with the help of weapons and rough strength.
A characteristic feature of the classical period of geopolitics (which, clarify, continued from the 1880s. XIX century. In 1950s.) There was not only consolidation of various scientists in a single bed of geopolitical thought, but also the formation of individual flows - national schools.
German school. The first formed the German school of geopolitics. She was born in the depths of geographical and legal Science. It is precisely interested policies geographers and lawyers who developed the doctrine of the state laid the foundations of new science. Her origins stood Karl Ritter, Friedrich Ratzel, Rudolph Chellen.
The flourishing of German geopolitics falls on the 1920-1940s, when such geopolitics, like Karl Househofer, Karl Schmitt, Erich Vomet, Kurt Vozhanowel, Adolf Grabovski, wrote their work, created geopolitical institutions, generally actively influenced the socio-political process in Germany. German geopolitics immediately began to develop in two directions. The source of the first - nationalist (To which the geopolitics mentioned above) was the national dissatisfaction of the Germans, which concluded them from the process of creating colonial empires, in defeating them in the First World War.
The second direction of German geopolitics - internationalist Left, Social Democratic - found its embodiment in the works of George Graf, Karl Wittfogel, other supporters of reforming Marxism. It puts its task to supplement historical materialism with geographic determinism, "bind" economic and political relations between people and states to nature, land and soil. Thus, during its initiative in German soil, geopolitics generated, first of all, radical (right and left) political theories. These theories were different as the possibilities and pressing challenges of Germany.
Theories of "Middle Europe" (Mitteleuropa) Joseph Parce and Friedrich Naumanne put the expansion of the German borders to the first place, the inclusion of all ethnic Germans with their territories, the formation of powerful and geopolitically lively inherited metropolis, which would be "naturally" to spread their influence to Turkey and the Middle East. In the theories of "World Politics" (Weltpolitik) Rudolph Chellen and Erich Voyti, geopolitical constructions began with the demands of the colonial possessions, the provision of "independence" to the colonies of small (Belgium, Holland, Portugal) and those who were deepening in their development (Spain), which would have served Favor more powerful and developed Germany. These theories, in turn, were divided into "maritime", approved by the priority of the fleet in the geopolitical development of states (Alfred von Tirpitz), and land, insist on the development of the German State primarily neighboring and nearby land (R. Chellen, F. Naumann) .
An important distinguishing feature of German geopolitics was an increased interest in it from the state and society. The reasons for this, obviously, was defeated in the First World War, the loss of all colonies, the need to pay huge reparations and a cruel financial and economic crisis that covered the country. The increased susceptibility of the Germans to the geopolitics contributed to the rapid rooting in the consciousness of the nation of the theory of "Middle Europe", the concept of "large spaces" (Friedrich Liszt), the "continental block" Berlin - Moscow - Tokyo "" (K. Househofer) and others. The main idea of \u200b\u200ball theories There was a confrontation of continental, land powers (and primarily in Germany), "offended" fate, powers of marine, shopping, rich, which owns tens of millions of square kilometers of overseas territories.
This, in turn, contributed to the successful and rapid institutionalization of geopolitics. Already in 1919, K. Househofer in the course of geography, which he reads at the University of Munich, sets out its geopolitical ideas. In 1924, in the Berlin Higher Political School, A. Grabovski organizes a geopolitical seminar. In the same year, Haushofer together with E. Vomet, O. Maul and G. Lauthenzaho begins the publication of the first geopolitical magazine. After the arrival of the Nazis to power (1933), he creates the Institute of Geopolitics in Munich, and in 1938 in Stuttgart - the National Union for the Geopolitical Education of the Germans living abroad. Geopolitics is introduced as a mandatory subject to all universities in Germany.
National geopolitical schools supporting expansionist policies were formed at the time in Japan and Italy.
Even before the First World War, humanity, as Ratzel predicted, began the active development of the air environment (aerospheric) with the help of devices lighter than air - airships, balloons, etc., and devices heavier than air - airplanes and helicopters. Geopolitics of the 1920-1940s. I comprehended the consequences of this development, and since it was going to a universal war, it was comprehended for mostly in the geostrategic and military-strategic key. A characteristic figure of the geopolitics that has exercised a breakthrough in the knowledge of a new type of human activity, in understanding the meaning of this activity to expand the impact of leading powers and the conquest of living space, was a representative italian school geopolitics, General Air Force Julio Due. In its work, "domination in the air" (1921), he concluded that aviation, in contrast to the previously invented machine gun, is not a defensive, but an offensive type of weapons and leads to the creation of non-defensive, but offensive military doctrines. It is from the fact of the development of aviation, his strategy of domination in the air flows in the air, which lies in a single planning, a single development of military and civil aviation, aviation and related other types of industries. It was Aviation, according to the theory of Due, was to solve the course and outcome of future wars.
Geopolitical schools of other leading states - Great Britain and France, We managed to build and retain their colonial empires, did not express such aggressive intentions, advocated the saving the status quo.
The founder of geopolitical science in France became Paul Vidal de la Blesch, who created the theory of "sobilism", according to which the geographical factor affects the policies of the state not directly, but through people, through the human factor. At the same time, people, possessing freedom of will, may somehow transmit the effect of geography, and this "transmission" has no necessarious, and probabilistic nature. The probability, the ability (FR. POSSIBELE) of the influence of the geography of the policy, determined by the activity of people, and gave the name of this theory.
In more detail we will focus on geopolitical views of only two outstanding geopolitics of the classical period, representing German and British scientific schools, Ratsel and McCinder.
Geopolitics, or political geography, Ratsel follows from nationwide, or anthropogeography. Anthropogeography is based on the following postulates:
All the peoples of the world are interrelated;
Man, all communities of people are included in the overall life of the globe;
The people and the state of each human community are a single organism;
This organism is in constant historical movement, development and growth;
The growth of the state body continues to natural borders;
The growth and development of states are influenced by the climate and geographical position, i.e. its territory, forms of the earth's surface, as well as the population density;
A maritime environment has a significant importance for stimulating the development of the state organism. One of the strongest "engines" of the development of human society was the fight against the sea. The propelination of sushi and the sea not only diversified the surface of the Earth, but also plays a large role in the formation of peculiar "historical groups", such as the Mediterranean world, the Baltic countries, the Atlantic powers, the Pacific Cultural region, etc.
In "Political Geography" (1898), Ratzel solves the problems of the existence and growth of states like living organisms. For Ratzel, the state is a form of life of people on earth, it is a living organism, "populating" with people all the continents and the islands of the Earth. The condition of life and growth of states is an inextricable connection with the land, the soil on which they exist. And since states are created people and exist in an inseparable connection with parodami and earth , then they turn out to be the "political glue", which connects this triad together. "The strongest states will be those," notes Ratzel, "where the political idea penetrates all the state body, to its last part ... and the political idea hugs not only the people, but also its territory."
So, political geography, i.e., classical geopolitics, along Ratzel, begins with the concept of the state as a living organism associated with the Earth. The second most important problem of geopolitics has the issues of historical movement and growth of states, which are solved by conquest and colonization. The growth of states at the same time contributes to the differentiation of the world into strong (viable) and weak countries. Strong creating colonial empires, the lotion of weak is to be attached to strong powers or their effects involved in the orbit. The third problem of geopolitics Ratzel considers the problem of spaces, spatial location of states and the impact of the geographical situation on the political status of the state. Finally, the fourth most important issue of the political geography of Ratzel considered the issue of borders as the peripheral bodies of the state, as natural geographic frontiers and as political delimitation lines. To solve this problem, he dedicated four sections of his "political geography". He explored all possible geographical transition areas where land and sea are found: the shores, peninsula, the islands, islands, various forms of the surface (plains, mountains, lowlands, plateaus) - and revealed their influence on the formation and structure of states.
It can be stated that geopolitics as scientific discipline took place in the works of F. Ratzel. He, asking a circle of problems, the first formulated the subject of new science. These problems were solved in the writings of other classics of geopolitics (Chellen, Mahen, Colomba, McCinder, Haushofer, Vytut, Naumann, Schmitt, Vidal de la Blesha, Due, V. P. Semenova-Tyan-Shanskogo, Savitsky, etc.). Their work for a long time, at least during the classical period, served as a guideline, asked the direction of the development of geopolitical science. Most of those problems and today, of course, in new geoistoric and geopolitical conditions are investigated and resolved by geopolitics.
Outstanding representative british school geopolitika The classic period, as already mentioned, was Halford McCinder - a major British geographer and a politician. In 1904, he spoke at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society with a report "Geographical Assessment of History", which outlined his geopolitical views. According to the concept of McCinder, the defining factor in the history of peoples is the geographical location of the countries. Moreover, as economic, social and cultural development, the influence of geographical, as well as military-strategic factors for human progress is constantly increasing. These factors manifest themselves in the relationship between the land and marine peoples, the development of earth and water spaces. These factors, ultimately, contribute to the formation of a geopolitical map of the world. At the beginning of the XX century. She looked as follows. Of all the continents of the Earth, the advantages, from a geographical point of view, has Eurasian continent (actually Russia), which has become in world politics by the "axial region". There are conditions here (inaccessibility from the "Sea Forces", good communications - railways) for the development of industrial and military powers that are replaced by the Mongolian Empire of the Middle Ages. Outside the "axial region" is "Big Inner Crescent", formed by Germany, Austria, Turkey, India and China, as well as "External Crescent", which make up sea powers: United Kingdom, USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia and Japan.
In this position, the equilibrium in the world is broken in favor of the peripheral marine states of the "external crescent". But the "axis" of Power - Russia, possessing huge resources, a marine may add to its land mobility, that is, to significantly increase the fleet and go into the world ocean. In addition, the industrial power and mobility of the continental empire can dramatically increase due to the conclusion of the Union with Germany. This will change the balance of power in the world in favor of the axial empire and will push the countries such as France, Italy, Egypt, India, Korea, to the Union with the sea head led by the United Kingdom and the United States.
Later in the book "Democratic ideals and reality" (1919), McCinder revised its concept of "axial region", which he began to call "Hartland" (i.e., the "Heart of the Earth") and included Tibet and Mongolia in it, as well as Central and Eastern Europe. This change took into account such processes as further transport progress, population growth, industrialization. And here, new advantages in the development of their territory and strengthening the effect on the entire Hartland and the world island (i.e., in Asia, Europe and Africa combined) received Germany and Russia (the latter during the writing of the report did not use these advantages). The powers of the periphery to maintain sea power, on the thought of McCinder, requires an increasingly extensive network of bases, which "on the pocket" only to a few states. From here, the famous formula of McCinder is followed: "Whoever rules Eastern Europe - dominates the Hartland; Whoever rules Hartland - dominates the world island (i.e., repeat, over Asia, Europe and Africa. - B. . AND.)] Who rules the world island - dominates the world. "
One of the founders uS geopolitical school Was A. MEHEN, the investigator " marine » directions Classical geopolitics, which proceeded from the advantages of marine powers above the land. In the works of A. Mehana "The influence of the marine force on history. 1660-1783 "," The influence of the marine force on the French revolution and the empire. 1783-1812 "And others were the idea of \u200b\u200bthe decisive role of sea power in the historical destiny of the state. Superiority of Great Britain at the end of the XIX century. Over other states, A. Mahan explained it to the sea power. Based on this postulate, he substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bthe US output from international isolation, turning it into a great naval power, capable of competing with the most strong states.
A. MEHEN suffered a planetary level "Anaconda", applied during the civil war 1861-1865. American General Mac-Klennan. This principle was in blocking the territory of the enemy from the sea and on the coastal lines for the purpose of strategic exhaustion. According to A. Mahan, Eurasian powers (Russia, China, Germany) should "strange" by reducing their scope of control over the coast zones and limit the possibilities of entering marine spaces.
Russian school geopolitics classical period (leading representatives - P. N. Savitsky, L. P. Karsavin, G. V. Vernadsky) developed eurasianism concept The key concept of which was the concept of "location", which denoted not only the geographical environment, but also the socio-historical space, which mutually complement each other, forming a whole. The location, according to Eurasians, determines the national character of peoples, their fate and development prospects.
Russian Eurasian Geopolitikov united the vision of Russia as a special world generated by the Space of Eurasia, the cultural influences of the Byzantine South, the European West and the Mongolian-Turkic East. They were convinced of the Great Future of the country due to her unique geopolitical situation in the center of the giant continent, possessing a huge territory and the identity of culture.
For greater visibility, we will minimize all directions of classical geopolitics into a single table (Table 24.1).
Summing up, we can say that classical geopolitics stands on three whales .
Firstly, it came from the depths of centuries an idea of \u200b\u200bthe message, which emanated from the geographical position, the greenery division on the states of the sushi and the power of the sea. In the classic period, he was reformulated by Karl Schmitt, which politics and geopolitics understood as a scheme "or or or", or rather, "a friend or enemy, his own or someone else, sushi or the sea, west or east." This idea did not make even the fact of mastering the third medium - the atmosphere, and the doctrine of the doctrine of domination in the air.
Secondly, this is the theory of Ratzel, who claims that the state is a living organism that it behaves like a colony of moss or algae. The state has only one alternative: or absorb neighboring countries and expand their geospaty, or be an eaten by the neighboring growing state. This expansion theory adequately described the structure of the world of the late XIX - early XX century, consisting of colonial metropolis, colonies and half colonia.
Thirdly, this is the formula of McCinder: due to the different geographical position of the states of the Earth, including those unattainable for expansion of the Hartland type zone can be formed. Hence, "who owns Hartland - owns the world." True, in response to the "law" of McCinder Nicholas, Spikmen formulated the opposite "law of world control", which says: "Whoever controls Romans is dominated by Eurasia, who dominates Eurasia - keeps the fate of the world in her hands."
The main goal of geopolitics is the development of the geostrategy of the state. The founder of geopolitics is considered to be Aristotle, who pointed to the geopolitical role of the islands and wrote that Crete is intended for the dominant influence on Greece. The actual term "geopolitics" in scientific turnover was introduced by R. Chellen, who understood it as a science studying the state as an organism and a spatial phenomenon. R. Chelen believed that the strengthening of the state is in direct proportional dependence on the expansion of its territory.
Geopolitical concepts are based on the principles of natural landscape and geographical specification, relying on which you can build a model of behavior of various states. This principle of geographical determinism is a predetermining meaning of geographical factors in the development of the state. The main criteria enjoyed by classical geopolitics are dry (fixed space) and the sea (dynamic space).
These obvious representations of a person about the quality of earthly space caused terms to life:
- thalassology (from Greek. Talassa - the sea, shorts - power) - the power of the country through the sea, assumes the presence of metropolis and colonies, intermittent territory;
- tellurocracy (from Lat. Tellus - Earth) - the power of the country through land, on which the entire territory of the country is located, involves the quality of territorial continuity.
Historically, Thalassology is connected with the West and the Atlantic Ocean, and Tellurocracy - with East and Eurasia. Further geopolitical constructions led to the emergence of terms: "Marine Earth" (i.e., the islands - the basis of the existence of marine empires) and "earth water" (i.e., sushi water - the main transport arteries that determine the development of land empires).
In geopolitical theories of the XIX century. special meaning Have natural zones and landscapes. So, it was believed that theocratic trends are maximized in the deserts and steppes, so these natural zones contribute to the formation of extensive empires. Conservative areas are confined to the mountains and forests - the zones of low-change public engines, where victims of national hostility and ethnic minorities are tightened. The capital of states, as a rule, are located on the hills - symbols of the royal power: on seven - by the number of planets or five - by the number of elements.
For early geopolitical theories, the categories of "naturalness" were characterized (natural boundaries, spheres of influence, which were determined based on physico-geographical realities - plains, rivers, mountains). The concept of "natural boundaries" was one of the first in geopolitics, the achievement of natural borders was considered the most important political goal of states.
As the geopolitical thought develops, the terminological dictionary of geopolitics has been expanded. It included such terms as: "Sphere of influence", "buffer zone" - a zone formed around a certain state in order to terminate its expansion, "vital nodes", "Life Roads", "Crisis Arcs" - elements of the geopolitical structure of the world , "Dynamic equilibrium of interests." These terms are now widely used in the theory of international relations and speeches of political figures.
Later, new directions of research appear: the study of the geopolitical aspects of the development of the World Ocean, the interdependence between the environmental and socio-economic situation, border areas, conflict zones.
The main principle is the transition from geopolitics of opposition to the geopolitis of interdependence. Its essence is to study new stakeholders in the world arena: transnational business, governmental and non-governmental international organizations, nationalist and separatist movements, terrorist organizations, folk liberation fronts, partisan and underground movements. Geopolitics are developing scenarios of the future global geopolitical order. At the beginning of the XX century. Geopolitics has become dominant in political and geographical studies. Her scientific novelty consisted in the interpretation of the state as a subject of the global system.
The history of scientific geopolitical thought allocates several stages in its development:
- "Civilized geopolitics" of the formation of the Euro-centrist world;
- "Nicocentric geopolitics", based on geographic determinism;
- "Ideological geopolitics" of the second half of the XX century. - confrontation of the West (capitalism) and the East (socialism).
German geopolitics school. The main representatives of the German school of geopolitics are F. Ratzel and R. Chellen. They believed that the state was an inextricably linked organism, a leading struggle for the "living space". This theory, which appeared during the rapid industrialization of Germany, which entered into the fight against England for markets, represented imperialist expansion as the necessary stage of development.
The kernel of geopolitics began the XX century. Consider specific geostrategies - complexes of proposals for the policy of a certain state based on the analysis of the geopolitical situation.
In 1897, the work of F. Ratzel "Political Geography", where the main theoretical provisions of geopolitics were presented as the theory of dynamic understanding of space. They boiled down to the following provisions:
- states are peculiar organs like alive, which are born, aging and dying, that is, constantly in motion;
- the growth of states is predetermined in advance, and "guess" of its limits and consequences is possible only by calling the laws of geography;
- each state has its own "living space" that it seeks to expand.
States controlling several types of territories have large economic and political opportunities, as they are forced to resist the large number of potential challenges, which makes them stronger than others.
The beginning of the XX C.: Geographical factors of world politics. Geopolitics began XX century. Geographical factors that play a crucial role in world politics were identified. This is a desire to expand the area, territorial monolithic and freedom of movement.
How was the policy of the world's major powers at the beginning of the 20th century explained from these points of view?
Russia He possessed the extended territory, territorial monolithium, but not freedom of movement, since it did not have access to the warm seas. The desire to ensure the exit to the shipping seas are explained by the Wars who have led Russia over the past centuries in its southern and western borders.
Great Britain There was complete freedom of movement due to the fleet and domination on the sea. It increased its territory at the expense of colonies and dominions, which expanded its living space. Thus, the British Empire turned out to be scattered by 26% of the globe, and it was in the absence of monolithicness that its main weakness was. The political exit was found in the creation of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which is economically and politically tied to the UK overseas possessions, former and real.
Germany There was no extensive territory nor freedom of movement. The main port cities in Germany - Hamburg, Bremen, Kiel were located in the mouths of the rivers fixed for the Dutch in the Westphalian Treaty. However, Germany had territorial monolith and a single ethnos that, as it were, the expansion prepared its expansion of the living space. Geopolitics predicted the expansion and the growth of the US power, which possessed all three factors, and political tensions in the Asia-Pacific region, where the main force is island Japan - there was no possibility of expanding the territory.
Theories of Halford McCinder. His main works: Article "Geographical Axist of History" (1904), the book "Democratic ideals and reality" (1919), H. McCinder was a representative of the British School of Geopolitics, his theory proceeded from the differences between the marine and continental powers and their principled Opposites like geopolitical antipodes. The first demonstrate their presence in the world with the help of the military and merchant fleet. Thanks to the fleet, they have mobility, can protect their own interests around the world, controlling sea communications. Continental powers primarily control sushi spaces and trading paths that provide them with everything necessary.
According to the model X. Makkinder, in the center of the world there is a giant closed continent - the "median land" - an array of stationary sushi, where the geographical axis of history (the territory of Central Asia) is held. "Inner Crescent" is the world of mobile history and the birthplace of world culture (Mediterranean, Western Europe, the Middle East, Indian subcontinent) - is located between the "median land" and the oceans. In the "external crescent" there are America, Africa south of Sahara, Australia and Oceania. This is the zone of marine powers.
The "median land" is invincible, since the sea powers cannot invade this zone, therefore the country's "inner crescent" could never subjugate the peoples inhabiting the "median land" (unsuccessful attempts by the Swedish king Karl XII, Napoleon, Hitler). At the same time, the peoples of the "median land", on the contrary, can easily invade the countries of the Inner Crescent and to conquer them. This means that the peoples of the "external crescent" and "inner crescent" must carry out a restraining role and always be ready to attack the peoples of the "median land". After the great geographical discoveries, the balance of forces only temporarily changed in favor of marine countries, because thanks to the emergence of rail transport, the impetus was again given to the development of land states.
Similar views adhered to the American Admiral A. Mahen (the work "The influence of the marine force on history, 1660-1783" 1890), which believed that control over the seas means control over the world. In 1943, the article "Round World and the achievement of the world" X. McCinder proposed a new model - the Hartland Union (USSR) with the Mid-Ocean (United Kingdom and the USA) against Germany. In this article, he substantiated the need to create a new geopolitical education - the transatlantic community (North Atlantic Block - NATO).
American school geopolitics. The principles of the British school relies with the American School of Geopolitics, the impetus for the development of which was the transformation of the United States to the world power in the second half of the XX century.
In 1942, the work of Nicholas Spikmen "American Strategy in World Politics" was published. In his opinion, the role of the leading marine power passed to the United States - a state located in the "external crescent", and the role of the main continental opponent - to the USSR. The new model introduced the concept of "Romans" - the contact zone ("inner crescent"), the control over which ensures world domination.
These theoretical constructions have formed the basis of real political strategies of the era of the opposition and the "Cold War" - "geopolitical containment". Its practical implementation was expressed surrounded by the USSR hostile states and military bases.
Of particular importance in American geopolitics was the so-called "Domino effect", according to which the arrival of the Communists to power in one country leads to similar processes in the neighboring countries.
The concept of geographical destination of Germany. Swedish Professor Rudolph Chellen (1864-1922) switched from theoretical geopolitics to practical recommendations. He belongs to the idea of \u200b\u200bgeographical destination of Germany: This country, located in the center of Europe, represents and protects the interests of Europe as a continental bloc, so its actions in the international arena are coming for the benefit of all European peoples. Geopolitik Arthur Dix showed that the existence of a "United Europe", the expressive of the interests of which is Germany, is possible only in the presence of a continuous spatial connection between the Northern Sea and the Persian Bay. The anticontinental strategy of London has always been aimed at breaking this diagonal: for this, the United Kingdom used and provoked conflict situations on this line - in the Balkans, in the Dardanelle region, in Armenia, Mesopotamia.
Under the German Emperor Wilhelme II (rules in 1888-1918), a union was created between Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the imaginary axis of which was diagonally from the Island of Helgoland (opposite the mouth of the Elbe) in the direction of Istanbul, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean . It provided Germany in the Mediterranean, control over the Black Sea, the Persian Bay, exit to the Indian Ocean, where the British were dominated.
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and creating mosaic of states in the Balkans, this axis broke up. Her recovery was the main goal of German diplomacy and hostilities in the following decades.
The geopolitical theories of Karl Haushofer as the ideological base of the German expansion of the first half of the twentieth century.
K. Househofer (1869-1945) created a scientific school of geopolitics and a geopolitical journal ("Zeitschrift Fur Geopolitik"), with his name, the transformation of geopolitics in the ideological base of German diplomacy of the first half of the XX century is connected with his name.
The key concept of geopolitics of that time was the concept of "living space" introduced in the XIX century. Ratsem. Following him, Haushofer believed that the main problems of Germany were caused by unfair and close borders. These provisions responded to the views of the German state leaders of the time, since they justified the need for expansion.
K. Haushofer also owns the idea of \u200b\u200bpiergionalism. He believed that large continental associations are the classroom. People must focus on the new form of a political organization - a large space that is necessary, since the narrow state framework impede the development of the modern specialized industry and prevent world commodities, customs barriers increase the cost of production.
K. Househofer allocated the following potential large spaces that could be formed by the middle of the twentieth century: EuroFrik with the domination of France and Germany; USSR with a sphere of influence in Iran, Afghanistan, India; Japan as a geopolitical center of East Asia; USA with the sphere of influence in North and South America. He was one of those who recommended to conclude the Soviet-German pact of 1939 (known as the "Molotov-Ribbentrop Covenant"), proposed an impracticable plan for creating a continental Eurasian Union, which would include Spain (Dictator Franco), Italy (Mussolini), France (The protascious regime in France was able to hold out from 1940 to 1944), Germany (Hitler), USSR (Stalin) and Japan. This union, acting in conjunction with national liberation movements, was supposed to withstand maritime powers, primarily the UK.
After 1945, a large communist region appeared in the center of the Middle Earth, as a counterweight, military blocks (NATO, Sato, Seato) have been formed, and the so-called "Cold War" and the War of Real - Korean, Vietnamese, Afghans began.
The theoretical basis of traditional geopolitics was geographical determinism. Developed by geopolitis of the first half of the XX century. Strategies have become actually the programs of the actions of configuring blocks. Geopolitical ideas about the "great destination of Germany as a center of Europe", about the "British Empire, over which the sun never comes", about "Russia, helping the Orthodox in the Balkans", etc., is firmly rooted in the mass consciousness, thinking of political figures. The gradual transformation of geopolitical ideas into national doctrines was brightly manifested in countries with special national ambitions.
The most notable contribution to the formation and development of geopolitics at that time was made by British, German and American theorists. Russians, in particular, N. Danilevsky ("Russia and Europe", 1869), S. Trubetskaya ("Europe and Humanity", 1921) were left in the development of this scientific direction ("Russia", Trubetskaya ("Russia as a great power" , 1910), E. Trubetskaya ("War and the World Task of Russia", 1917) and a number of other scientists who investigated the ratio of historical and geographical developments in their political process, disclosed the features of domestic strategic thinking in the international arena, showed the relations of the National and State Interests with the values \u200b\u200bof the Russian people.
The most prominent event in geopolitical research was the ideas of the English scientist X. Makinder (1869-1947), which in the works "the physical foundations of political geography" (1890) and the "Geographical Ax of History" (1904) formulated the concept of "Hartland", which had a significant impact on All subsequent history of geopolitics. In his opinion, part of the sushi, artificially divided into Asia, Africa and Europe, is a "world island", which is a "natural location of force." His core was at that time the Russian empire with part of the adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and some other countries, which were separated from the countries of the Inner Crescent (where the states of the Eurasian continent did not belong to its mainland) and the "external crescent" (Australia , America and a number of other states). This "median land", or Hartland (Eurasia), not permeable to influence the marine empires, and was a "axle of world politics". And the one who, according to Makider, controlled Hartland, controlled the "World Island" and, therefore, the whole world.
Such ideas secured the advantage of land powers in the current balance of the forces in relation to maritime and co-economy states. However, this state of the latter was to encourage them to loosen the power of countries controlling Hartland, preventing, in particular, to enter the sea and the unification of the largest states in this territory (in particular, Germany and Russia), contributing to the crushing of states in this space and creating Confessing blocks and coalitions.
In addition to the rationale for such global geopolitical layouts, MacInder formulated and the provision that in the future the development of political forces in the world can significantly change the development of technologies that are able to actively modify the physical environment. Therefore, the decisive world influence should be preserved for those countries that encourage invention and technical progress, as well as capable of the most optimally organized for this and the entire social system.
A number of German scientists, in particular F. Ratzel (1844-1901) and K. Househofer (1868-1945), proposed their own vision of the geopolitical realities of that era, significantly different from the views of the UK representative, who dreamed of the elevation of the former majority of the "Lady of the Seas". Thus, Ratzel in the work "Political Geography" (1897) formulated a number of provisions that were subsequently subsequently in the rationale for the expansionist aspirations of Germany, which turned from agrarian to an industrial power. So, considering the state as a body acting according to biological laws whose vital components are determined by the "country's position, space and boundary", he believed that the condition of preserving his resilience is to increase political power, the essence of which is the territorial expansion and expansion of "living space" . Therefore, German politicians should develop the "gift of colonization" for the sake of finding the country of the former power.
Taking as a basis the idea of \u200b\u200bexpanding the living space, which should guarantee the state from Avtarkia and dependence on the neighbors, Haushofer tried to substantiate the idea that the conquest of new territories and acquires such a way of freedom and there is an indicator of the state of state. The most important way to the territorial distribution of its power, he recognized the absorption of small states larger. It was on these ideas that the Munich Professor, the leadership of Hitler Germany, developed its "geopolitical axes" of the attack on neighboring states and the creation of the Third Reich. It is characteristic that, according to Haushofer, "neither continental, nor the marine force will create the world power", so it "creation depends on the combination of these two factors." An essential innovation in the geopolitical constructions of Haushofer can be considered the position-extended position, according to which the dominant position in the world can only take the powers that can produce some "panideos", in particular, American, Asian, Russian, Pacific, Islamist and European. It is such a spiritual framing that gives the territorial claims of states due and the justification of their actions.
By the middle of the 20th century, in the conditions of the territorially divided world, accents in geopolitical doctrines were mainly shifted to ensuring security for both individual states and for the world as a whole. Own view of the geopolitical perspectives of the "finished world" nominated the American scientist N. Spykman (1893-1944), which proceeded from the fact that global security in the world can be provided by controlling the "mainland border", i.e. Coastal states of Europe and Asia, located between the mainland core and seas. This space was in his opinion, a constant conflict zone between continental and marine powers. And the one who will control this Roman (coast) will also carry out control over Eurasia and the whole world. Being a Yarym Supporter to Expand American Influence in the World, Spikeman developed the concept of dominance on the World Arena "Oceanic" powers. He argued that the need for the construction of a global security system in the world has set these countries, and first of all the United States, before the need for solving primarily technological tasks (for example, the creation of land-based military bases on the mainland sushi, the comprehensive development of transport communications, which gives it possible in a timely manner Move people and resources), which was supposed to be created and allow creating a "hoop" constraint around the mainland core in order to fully control the corresponding space. In essence, Spykman tried not to justify the leading role of the United States in the post-war device of the world, but also became the first theorist who constructed the geopolitical concept of the behavior of this superpower in the international arena.
However, the development of the world after World War II made substantial adjustments to geopolitical projects. "Cold War", the development of new information technologies, transport communications, and most importantly - the appearance of some nuclear weapons in the arsenals (especially space-based) essentially erased the difference between the land and marine powers. In such conditions, the principle of reducing the impact of the military and political force of the state as far as possible from its territory. In addition, the regionalization of cooperation of various states began to be bright. In this regard, some scientists began to consider international relations as multilayer geopolitical processes.
So, S. Cohen allocated in the post-war world "geostrategic regions" of a global scale (represented by the marine powers and countries of the Eurasian-continental world), between which there were "unsubstantiated belts" (they were the countries of the Middle East and Southeast Asia), as well as more small "geopolitical districts" (which formed individual big countries in conjunction with a number of smaller states). This ensemble of international relations of various difficulties, in his opinion, began to crystallize global political systems - USA, coastal Europe, USSR and China. These processes reflected trends towards the formation of block systems, states and coalitions capable of the most powerful impact in world politics.
A major contribution to the development of geopolitical ideas introduced J. Rosenau, who put forward the concept that the world of global politics began to develop from two interconnecting worlds: firstly, the polycentric world of "actors outside the sovereignty", in which various corporate structures began to act with the states Even individuals and which began to contribute to the creation of new connections and relations in world politics; And secondly, the traditional structure of the world community, where national states occupy the main position. The intersection of these two worlds demonstrates the dispersal of power resources, the emergence of opposing trends, for example: the increase in the ability of the individual to analyze the political world is combined with extreme complications of political relationships, erosion of traditional authorities is adjacent to the strengthening of civilizational roles in justifying the policies of states, the search for identity goes along with constant reorientation political loyalty, etc. At the same time, the decentralization of international relations and relations, and the main thing - the erosion of the concept of "force" and, as a result, the change in the content and meaning of the concept of "security" was recognized, according to Rosenau.
In the 60-80s. The XX century geopolitical theories were practically not used to substantiate and explain the new geographical configurations, to expand the spheres of influence and expansion of the representatives of the two hostile blocks. The "Iron Fist", which carried out by the United States in Vietnam and other regions of the world, or the aggression of the USSR in Afghanistan justified mainly ideological provisions. And only from the mid-80s. (Mostly in American science), geopolitical substantiations of foreign policy actions began to be constructed.
In modern conditions, the interpretation of geopolitical principles received new development, they have enriched significantly. So, S. Huntington considers the dispute disputes of civilizations as a source of geopolitical conflicts. The concept of "Golden Billiona", according to which the benefits of civilization will be able to get only a limited number of people due to the lack of worldwide resources, predicts the exacerbation of interstate conflicts due to resources and territory, while emphasizing on the need to create safe states of artificial obstacles in relations with less developed countries. . Along with such confrontational forecasts, a number of politicians and theorists offer a "illegal" interpretation of the world, based on universal harmony and cooperation of states, put forward models like a "pan-European house", involving the creation of a system of collective security of states and peoples existing in the interconnected, nuclear-free and interdependent world.
Significant changes occur in the interpretation of the geopolitical principles themselves, which began to be used to analyze internal political processes.
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The methodological foundation of regional studies are theories and concepts that consider international relations at the macroregional, country-headed and subregional levels. The theory of international relations is subject to a special university course. Therefore, we will highlight the most relevant theoretical approaches devoted to the regionalization of international relations. it geopolitical, sociological, political economic and geographical theories and concepts. There are many teachings about regional development. Significantly fewer theories and concepts viewing regions as subjects of international relations.
Geopolitical theories are divided on the theory of traditional (state-in) geopolitics, new geopolitics (geoeconomics) and the newest (civilization) geopolitics.
The theory of multipolar world order Based on the coexistence of several (more than two) macroregions with geopolitical poles (centers of military political or economic power). In the new history, world order was ensured by the equilibrium of five approximately equal powers: Great Britain, Prussia, France, Austria and Russia. In the modern history, during the confrontation of two superpowers, trends towards multipolarity began to accumulate. IN modern world This process is characterized by the rate of development of potential poles and uneven maturation of socio-economic, military-political, demographic and other elements. The economic power of the EU and Japan is not supported in military-political attitudes. PRC, being a great power in its geographical and demographic parameters, increases economic power with a support not only to domestic resources, but also by the formation of "Big China". In a long-term perspective, India and Brazil can be applied to the role of significant poles of the world order. In the world geoeconomic space, the Poles of Economic and Technological Development in North America, United Europe and the Asia-Pacific region are formed.
Theory of large spaces - geopolitical teaching of the German lawyer, political scientist and philosopher Karl Schmitt (1888-1985), On the basis of which the union of several powers in a single strategic block. Schmitt considered the principle of imperial integration by the logical and natural human desire for synthesis. A large space is under the domination of a state with an idea-power. As an example of a large space, he considered Northern and South America, united by the Doctrine Monroe. The goal of Nazi Germany was to create the World Empire (Third Reich).
Schmitt introduced the concept of "NOMOS Earth", reflecting the pattern of the relationship between the world order and the peculiarities of the social and legal device of the state. In the works of "Earth and the Sea" (1942) and "Nomos Earth" (1950), the scientist has comprehended the geopolitical factors and their influence on civilization and political history. NOMOS denotes the principle of organizing any space (geographical, political, economic or cultural). The first "nomos" existed to great geographical discoveries, when there was no planetary thinking and each numerous people considered themselves the center of the world. After the great geographical discoveries, the founders of the second "Nomos" were Europeans who divided the planet among themselves. As a result of the First World War, the third "nomos", the seduced land in the East and the West formed. It began "cold" and "hot" confrontation between the continental and marine world. If the balance between the continent and the sea is broken, the Great Civilization Cathererta will come. This probability will increase if civilization breaks away from the soil.
In modern international relations and the latest geopolitics, the idea of \u200b\u200blarge spaces can be traced in the creation of civilizational states with a dominant liberal-democratic idea (American civilization, United Europe).
Unlike the theory of large spaces (macroregional levels), many geopolitical theories were created, where the state acts as the main object. They are described in all textbooks on geopolitics. Theoretical approaches at the subregional level, exploring regions as subjects of international relations, are significantly less developed. It takes a special place here theory of srankimism - the geopolitical teaching of the famous French scientist Vidal De La Blass Paul (1845-1918), Which, becoming at the head of the Department of Geography Sorbonne (Paris University), in its acts in 1899, urged scientists to focus efforts to study the interaction of a person with a natural environment in local locations. In every such homogeneous area, called Pey (Pays) in France, a person uses nature opportunities in accordance with cultural and historical traditions, goals and organization. Thus, the foundations of submitterism were laid, focusing on the use of a person possible, "dormant energy" of nature (geographical position) and sociocultural code for the optimal development of the state.
In labor "East France", written by Vidal de La Beschas in 1919, the scientist anticipated his time, having put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bturning border land into the zone of mutual cooperation between countries. In the second half of the XX century. It is here that one of the political centers of the United Europe and will begin to embody the idea of \u200b\u200bcross-border cooperation by creating Euroregions.
Vidal de la Blesch one of the first stressed the role of communication geoeconomic axis in the formation of France:
Already in ancient times in our territory, the influence of the Mediterranean and North Seas began to affect our territory. Geographically, this influence is expressed and fixed in roads, distant communication lines. The trading axis of the whole of France, which proceeded from Provence and ending in England or Flanders, is distinguished by remarkable stability. It was along this line that the main medieval fairs were located - in Beroker, Lyon, Chaln, True, Paris, Arras, Torka and Bruges.
In the emergence of a single France, the value of the water path of Ron - Sona - Sen / Rhine. The intensive movement of vessels up and down the trading track embodied the gusts of the Mediterranean civilization to the north, the rapprochement and interpenetration of cultures. Communications played an important unifying cultural and political role in the civilizational formation of Western Europe.
Silism played an important role in the development of geopolitical ideas. He contributed to overcoming geographic determinism of traditional geopolitics. The French School of Human Geography laid the foundations of the geopolitical economy, which received recognition at the end of the XX century. In Western Europe, the idea of \u200b\u200bcross-border cooperation is embodied by creating " euroregions" The theory of claims is the harbinger civilization geopolitics.
Geoeconomic theories. The economic model, brilliantly embodied in one country, when used in another society, can lead to the destruction of the existing order. This clearly showed post-socialist transformation in Eastern European countries. The technology of modernization is needed, in which external and internal development factors must be correlated, taking into account the challenges of the era and nature of the person. The basis of a geo-economic approach is the technology of achieving state power mainly economicly under the influence of external and internal challenges. Geoeconomic It is considered as a new geopolitics that determines the world economic integration of states and the creation of competitive regional economic conditions in the context of globalization. Here, strategic goals are achieved mainly by long-term economic methods for the redistribution of resources and global income. Superflowers (rents of the boundary energy) are obtained by world poles of economic and technological development (great powers, world cities, technopolis) located at the borders of the multidimensional communication space. Thus, geoeconomics warns from the temptation to find the path to the well-being of the state in real geography.
The development of geoeconomic thinking is particularly relevant for politicians increased on the principles of atheism, low educational culture and "drawing" collective ownership. From here a series of lost geoeconomic wars and "soap" projects of the Renaissance, characteristic of the Eastern European world.
New geopolitics (geoeconomics) Received special development in the United States after the end of World War II. Geoeconomic strategy has become the basis theories of "Life Interests" theory - The teachings of American geopolitics justifying the military presence of the United States in various regions of the world with economic interests. In labor S. Koen, E. Huntington, N. Spekman, J. Kifferaand other scientists are laid by the foundations of new geopolitics, preferred geoeconomics. The achievement of world domination by geoeconomic wars is justified. Technical progress in the development of global communications, especially marine and air transportThe expansion of the sphere of influence of American monopolies contribute to overcoming the geographical separation of the United States. Therefore, American economic interests can be far beyond the state. Practically theory " life interests"She became a continuation of the convicted German policy "Life space". In different regions of the world, a wide network of American military bases was created, for example, in the zone of rich in oil Persian Gulf.
The basis of the geoeconomic approach was laid in the teaching avtarkia large spaces german economist Friedrich Sheet (1789-1846), supporter of industrial development in Germany. Professor (1817) of state practice in Tubingen University for the opposition to the Government of Würtenberg was imprisoned, and then expelled from the country. In the period of emigration, lived in America and France. In 1832, as an American consul returned to his homeland, where he strongly advocated the unification of Germany on the basis of the Customs Union, the development of the national industry and construction railways, became one of the organizers of the Universal Association of German Industrialists and merchants. In 1833-1834 In Germany, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Customs Union nominated to them.
According to the leaf teaching, the effective world economic integration of the state is possible on the basis of a combination of protectionist policies against the domestic manufacturer and the Customs Union with a gradual transition to an open economy. The transformation of the national economy into the world market is most effective through an intermediate stage (Customs Union).
The state controls the reform process and with the help of protectionist measures encourages the development of the domestic economy.
In the labor "National System of Political Economy" (1841), the scientist developed the theory of productive forces, the main component of which he considered "mental capital", defined as the main source of the wealth of the nation. The sheet developed the idea of \u200b\u200b"educational protectionism", requiring the active state intervention in economic life. The sheet formulated an idea of \u200b\u200bthe "autarkius of large spaces" - economically independent and, mostly self-sufficient territories, where domestic communications and exchange give a certain organic unity.
He opposed the extremes of market liberalism, treating the openness of economic systems as good, and insulatingism - as evil. Of the two open economies, the greatest benefits remove the one that the first joined this path and created the developed market infrastructure. From here, the idea of \u200b\u200bselective openness and protectionism is born: " Free trading is our goal, and the educational duty for the nature is our way. " Election openness can exist on the scale of a large economic continent, united by a single customs border. "Avtarkia large spaces" should include several developing states. On this path after the catastrophe of World War II, Western Europe has gone. The paternalistic approach of the sheet was laid in the post-war model of the German Miracle.
In the formation of regionalistics and geoeconomics, a large role belongs the teachings about the worlds-economies One of the largest French thinkers and historians of the twentieth century Fernana Starodel (1902-1985). The scientist was a generally accepted leader of the historiographic school "Annala", the honorary doctor of many European and American universities. In the fundamental work "Material civilization, economics and capitalism, the XV-XVIII centuries." (1967) carried out the historical synthesis of all aspects of society's life. World economic history appears as an alternation for five to six centuries of the domination of certain economically autonomous regions of the world - world economies. An example of a holistic territorial education characterized by certain economic unity is the historical Mediterranean.
The world-system geopolitical school, laid in the works of Brojel, was further developed in the teaching of the American thinker, historian, sociologist and economist Immanuel Weltstain. Scientist developed theory of world systems, outlined in the works "Modern World System" (1974), "Capitalistic World Economy" (1979), "Political World-Economy" (1984) and other Wallerstein based on a world-system approach allocated three types of historical systems. The mini-system is characteristic of primitive society and is an analogue of a kind or tribe. Then the time of the world systems of two types occurs. For world-empires, the dominance of the developed military bureaucratic class is characterized, a redistribution method of production and dominance of agriculture. And finally, the world economy is distinguished by the capitalist method of production.
The scientist identified three cycles of world capitalist hegemony. For four hundred years, the Dutch, British and American hegemony cycles (the leadership of the world powers) were changed. Each cycle passed three phases: world War, Hegemony Great Power and its decline. The Netherlands cycle of Hegemony continued from 1618 to 1672, the British - from 1792 to 1896 and the American began with 1914. World hegemony is due to the geopolitical dominance of one of the states in international relations, including the military-political and economic sphere.
Walleretine proposed the theory of global systems based on a three-star hierarchical structure: the kernel - half-period - periphery. During the period of the formation of capitalism, several economically powerful powers were distinguished, which are not able to implement political global control alone. The formation of a single market has become possible due to the competition of goods of a set of states. During the period of structural restructuring of the global economy and the corresponding transformation of the political map, the change occurs due to "half-readeries". From it, some countries go to the upper step (kernel), others degrade to the state of the periphery.
The theory of world systems appeared as a reaction to limited traditional power geopolitics and focused on the geo-economic approach. Supporters of the peace-system approach view a single world economy as a special subject of international relations, which determines the political behavior of states.
For the theory of international economic relations, there was great importance the doctrine of the cycles of world conjuncture Russian economist N.D. Kondratieva (1892-1938), repressed and destroyed by Soviet power. To a large extent, thanks to a friend of the scientist who has become the largest Western sociologist - Pitirim SorokinThe theory of the cycles of the global situation did not go into oblivion. Kondratyev describes the pattern of global economic and technological development. Cycles reflect mainly the rise and decay of the leading branches of the world economy. The cyclicity addresses primarily the farm of the highly developed countries forming the "Center" of the global system. Through the international division of labor, the world core affects the rest of the state. The duration of the cycle is 40-60 years.
The doctrine of cycles of global conjuncture contributed to the creation condratyev Models - Walleretain , having ringed geopolitics with the global economy. The fall and take-off of world geopolitical hegemony correlates with the rebuilding of the world economy described in the economic cycles of the Big Condratyev conjuncture. Walleretine allocated the following stages of the Hegemonic Cycle. In the first stage of "ascending hegemony", a geopolitical confrontation is found when the great powers compete for the right of inheritance of leadership. The long-term economic advantage is obtained by the state where new technological advances that increase production efficiency are concentrated. In the second stage, there is a general decline in the global economy, which limits the possibilities for expansion. However, the rising power, having technological, manufacturing and trading advantages, is able to protect their interests and reaches hemonical maturity. The global financial center moves to it and "True Hegemony" occurs.
Hegemon, which has high competitiveness on the foreign market, stands for the openness of the global economy and free trade. The final stage of the "Drops of Hegemony" is associated with a decrease in production efficiency and the strengthening of protectionist measures in confrontation with the violation of rivals. Having imposed a three-star model on the "long waves" of the development of the world economy (Condratyeva cycles), Walleretine revealed the movement of the world "nucleus" over the past 200 years. The center of gravity of the global economy has shifted from the UK to Germany and further, in the period of "global civilization" - east in the United States. In the modern world, the "kernel" continues to drift on the American West in California, i.e. to the Asia-Pacific region. The theory of Walleretain proved the mistakenity of a global history as a single progressive trajectory, which all countries should pass sooner or later.
In the future, American political scientists have developed long cycles of world politics, or "leadership cycles". The change of such cycles periodically changes the geopolitical structure of the world (world order), contributes to the nomination of new great powers and their influence zones. The duration of one long cycle of world politics is about 100 years. Each world policy cycle correlates with two consecutive cycles of the global conjuncture of Kondratyev.
In international economic relations, it is necessary to take into account the ideas about business (economic) cycles reflecting the fluctuations of the national product, income and employment, accompanied by an increase or decrease in economic activity in the period up to 10 years.
Actually, "economization" of geopolitics based on a world-system approach was proposed by a British geographer P. J. Taylor in teaching geoeconomic monocentrism but. The scientist explored the geopolitical hegemony of states in absolute dominance in the international system of relations in the economic, political and ideological spheres. Hegemony is achieved, first of all, on the basis of economic superiority, when the production, trading and financial activities of one state becomes more efficient than others. The advantage over rivals is achieved through the creation of new products through innovations and an expansion of demand. This contributes to the production, trading, and in the future and financial dominance, and the state becomes world hegemon. The scientist introduced the concept of "geopolitical dynamics" in the change of world orders, deepened the world-system approach of Weltstain, organically connecting the global, national-state and local spatial levels of politics. Taylor highlights the three geo-economic cycles of hegemony in a new story: Holland (mid-XVII century), Britain (middle of the XIX century) and the USA (mid xx century).
Taylor uses the concept "Geopolitical code", Changing over the history of the state. The code includes national interests, the sphere of influence, relations with neighboring countries, i.e. The entire geographical spectrum of relations and ways of interaction with the outside world.
The scientist contributed to the development of electoral (political) geography, became a co-founder and first editor of the International Journal "Political Geography" (from 1982). According to Taylor, social democratic principles achieve the greatest effect in countries that are at a sufficiently high level of economic development (world "kernel"). In the "periphery" and "half-readeries", with limited funds for social policies and the dominance of citizens who do not have economic dignity, the system of freedom of expression of political views is actually lacking. Poor electorate voices can be bought.
Taylor considers the world as a rigid hierarchical system with the dominance of the "nuclei" countries and the "main" power. Periods of relative geopolitical stability characterized by the dominance of the leading power, he connects with Kondratyevsky cycles of economic development. The transition from one global geopolitical order to others occurs during short dramatic periods, such as world wars, epidemics and hunger. Although the Taylor concept is based on the economic foundation of the theory of long cycles, the reasons for the state of the state he sees, first of all, in the attractiveness of ideas underlying its internal and foreign Policy. They reject the possibility of conflict between the north and south, but the increase in the integrational role of Islamic fundamentalism is not excluded. He expresses anxiety about the climbing wave of nationalism and the further crushing of states. Scientist considers the idea of \u200b\u200bnation-state legacy ropocentrismcapable of destabilizing the world.
Geo Economic Theory North - South He explores the confrontation of macroregions of the rich north ("Golden Billion") and poor south ("billion unemployed"), tensions on the border between developed and developing countries. World Union - Geo-economic macroregion, global center. Includes the United States, Canada, Western Europe and other highly developed countries (Japan, Israel, Australia and New Zealand). In the North Atlantic part of the "Nordic" Macro Region managed to create special national wealth. This is a multidisciplinary infrastructure for high-tech production, including information and communication technologies. The transitional state in relation to the north is the post-Soviet world, which has lost the mighty pole of the power of the Communist East. Most post-Soviet states drifting in the opposite direction of the North. As a result of the global financial crisis, in the late 1990s, Russian GDP became three times less than New York GDP.
Deep south - geoeconomic macroregion, deep global periphery with characteristic processes of demodernization and criminalization of social and economic relations. Macroregion includes many countries located mainly in the tropics and subtropics (Central Africa, Indookean arc). Some post-Soviet states, such as Tajikistan and Ukraine, are approaching deep south. For most countries, especially Muslim, the mining of raw materials is characteristic. Macroregion states advocate the revision of the existing natural rental distribution system. Under the influence of economic globalization there is a degradation of social organisms, aggravated by the corporate group-oriented corporate groups. These countries are most exposed to the impact and control by the ethnok-lane mafia communities of world diasporas.
Theories of the newest geopolitics Based on a civilization approach, which, in contrast to traditional geopolitical, draws attention to the stability of cultural and genetic codes and archetypes, characteristic of civilizations. On the basis of the neomarixist course of Western political thought, the direction of social studies called geoculture - Cultural foundation of the capitalist world system (Immanuel Wallerstein "Geopolitics and Geoculture", 1991). Geoculture is also seen as the synonym for "cultural imperialism", manifested in its distribution from the industrial rich world north on poor world south.
In the process of transformation of international relations increased popularity fundamentalism - Teachings about the "true" foundations of being. Fundamentalism is considered as a real alternative to globalization, as a public, ideological, religious movement, proclaiming the commitment to the initial ideas, principles, values \u200b\u200bof certain teachings, doctrines that put forward the requirements of overcoming the perversions that appeared during their development, sludge and the restoration of initial purity, "Return to " Religious (religious-political) and market fundamentalism differs.
Religious fundamentalism It was originated in Western Christianity, now is especially characteristic of Islam. Religious fundamentalism returns to traditional religious values \u200b\u200bpreceding a new time. In the Christian civilization, the fundamentalism of the Protestant (Evangelical) and Orthodox (Old Believer) are allocated, and the "spirit of capitalism" is associated with them. Islamic fundamentalism is interpreted as "returning to righteous ancestors" or "Road to Mecca". It is the eastern analogue of the European Reformation (support for spiritual leadership and democracy). As political ideology has an anti-community orientation and relies on the anti-capitalist mood of social marginals and other layers of society affected by attempts modernization (westernization).
Market Fundamentalism It was the export of market relations to the post-Soviet space affected by the impact of militant atheism. He contributed to the dominance of the spirit of Nazi over morality, honor and duty, led to the formation of criminal-corrupt democracies with an exceptionally pronounced social inequality and elite "in law". Market fundamentalism became a detonator for protest Islamic fundamentalism.
Theories of ethnocentrism Justify the central position in the global development of one or another civilization, for example, China-centrism, euro-centrism. Ethnocentrianism and nationalism weaken civilizational, super-ethnic connections and promote westernization in non-free societies. The desire for ethnic integration was manifested in the creation of the theory of pancaslavism, Pantürkism, Panarabism, panislamism. According to Lion Gumileva, With a large variety of geographical conditions for the peoples of Eurasia, the association has always turned out to be much more profitable separation. Disintegration deprived of power and resistance. The traditional division to the West and East is the result of euro-centerness, at the origins of which the Romano-German world, ideologically combined by the Catholic Church.
The joint and long-term residence of people of different denominations over time can turn into an ethnopolitical problem, exacerbated by economic and demographic factors. For example, Orthodox Christians and Muslims of one terrain have different pace of demographic reproduction. Islam prohibiting abortion contributes to childbirth, which in the end leads to the dominance of Muslims in the territory that is the historical location of another people. In addition, on super-ethnic and confessional strokes, assimilation is not always possible. Despite the long-term accommodation of Christians and Muslims in Levante, they were not assimilated even in the conditions of island isolation (Greek Cypriot and Turks-Cypriots).
Eurocentrism - a geopolitical concept that substantiates the central position in the world development of the "exemplary" Western European culture. Claims of Western European civilization on the integrating role in the world appeared starting from the era of great geographical discoveries. However, the "spiritual superiority" of European culture causes an increasing resistant to the peoples of Asia and Africa. The movement against euro-centrism is gaining momentum. Europe, responsible for the disconnection of the two most bloody world wars, does not have the moral right to teach other nations.
In the West, widespread theory of "Golden Billion" - The modern European student teaching of the "Chosen People", which guarantees a privileged existence on Earth. To the rich "Golden Billion", or the "Filight of the Favorites", includes post-industrial countries (USA, Western Europe, Canada, Japan, etc.), which in 2000 had about 15% of the population of the Earth and 80% of world GDP. The billion of citizens of post-industrial countries opposes the rest of humanity, serving the interests of transnational capital.
For the development of new and new geopolitics, it is important the concept of polycentrism (geopolitical regions) and the balance of geostrategic forces American scientist Sola Cohen. In the work "Geopolitics to the new world era: the prospects for the old discipline" (1994) the scientist adheres to the point of view that if the classical geopolitics was part of the arsenal of confrontation and war, then the new geopolitics can be a tool for the formation of international peace and cooperation. To do this, it is necessary to focus on the study of the dynamics not only physical, but also social processes. The author stops in detail on the new filling of the "old" geopolitical concepts. Military "Balance of Power" is inferior to the new hierarchy of the global system of the so-called polyocracy (the authorities of the set), where the spheres of interest, various levels of hegemony, national and transport components, etc. are interconnected. The modern geopolitical structure of the world includes the new meaning of the "conflict zones", the main "axial spaces" and the geopolitical "gate".
Cohen One of the first to substantiate the possibility of decaying a bipolar world order and an increase in the role of geopolitical regions characterized by relatively homogeneous economic, political and cultural signs. Thus, an attempt was made to avoid limited geographical and economic determinism in geopolitics. Selected geopolitical regions were included in two geostrategic spheres. Anglo-America and Caribbean, Western Europe and Maghreb, Outcontinental "Offshore" Asia and Oceania, South America and Africa South Sahara are included in the seafood. In the Eurasian Sphere - Hartland (Russia and Eastern Europe) and East Asia. Outside two geostrategic spheres, South Asia (India), the Middle East and Central Eastern Europe are allocated.
The geopolitical regions are at different stages of development and are interconnected by energy flows, the movement of goods, capital, people and ideas. Each region has a certain level of entropy (by analogy with physics). The increase in the level of entropy indicates the exhaustability of internal energy, or productive ability. Geopolitical regions with superpowers are characterized by low and middle-level entropy and determine the equilibrium of the global geopolitical system. The cohen pays special attention to the belts of instability or marginal sphere, such as Central Eastern Europe. This and other transition regions can turn out of the "apple of contention" in the "gate" that strengthen world stability if they are transformed from the conflict band in the compromise zone.
Western intellectual thought underlies the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating "United States of Europe" - General "European House", comparable to the US economic power. European Regionalism Based on the principles of "Atlantic" federalism, providing for the liberation of civil society from the guardianship of the state. The essence of European regionalism lies in the phased transition from the supranational associations to Europe regions. In this process Council of Europe It goes like ahead European soyfor, laying the foundation of the future civil society. European Regionalism is based on theory of subsidiarity providing for B. public relations The priority of the rights and interests of the individual to the rights and interests of any commonality. In Western Europe, the principle of subsidiarity. Provides a clear distribution of rights and responsibilities for the executive vertical with delegation of authority to the territorial level, where they can be performed most effectively.
In the development of regionalist theory, a substantial contribution was made by domestic thought. If the above approaches proceeded from the principle of Eurocentrism, the Russian scientists focused on a civilization approach from the standpoint of Eurasianism. Here is an important place maine Concept P. N. Savitsky. The scientist proposed to allocate a holistic taxonomic territorial unit (elementary particle) in which the cultural and genetic code originates.
Landscapes of locations - a unique combination of landscapes, where this people have developed as ethnocultural community and adapted to environment. Ethnogenesis processes in Eurasia arose mainly in the East - with a combination of steppe and mountain landscapes, in the west - forest and meadow, in the south - steppe and oasis (Crimea, Central Asia), in the north - timber tundra and tundra. In the Middle East, new ethnic combinations often arose in natural contact areas of the sea, mountains, deserts and river valleys. The Chinese people have formed on the shores of Juanhe, with a combination of river, mountainous, forest and steppe landscapes. The Russian ethnic view was in the landscapes of opial, birch groves, the quiet rivers of the Volga-Oksky Meternreach.
Steppe landscapes have identified the lifestyle of nomadic peoples, and the Valley of Juanhe and Yangtze - the Meliorative Skills of the Chinese. With the colonization of the lands, the ethnic group is adapting, new behavioral skills are produced transmitted from generation to generation using a mechanism of signal heredity. As a result, the ethnos makes the original behavior stereotype.
Ethnos, losing touch with landscapes of locally, often dismissed stereotypes of its traditional behavior to another natural environment. For example, Russians and Ukrainians who settled the Far East, for a long time could not develop an optimal strategy in relations with nature, while local Koreans sought high yields. Their distinctive economy was fundamentally different from the mistake of immigrants and was adapted to local natural conditions. the best composition crops (rice, millet, beans, vegetables).
Concept of cultural and historical regions was offered to another Eurasian N. S. Trubetsky. This teaching L. N. Gumilev interpreted as follows. According to the concept of contact on the super ethnic level gave negative results:
The Eurasian concept of ethnocultural regions and chimern-kingdoms in marginal (outskirts) zones turned out to be suitable for interpretation of world-historical processes. Where two and more superetos are faced, the disasters multiply and the logic of creative processes is disturbed. The imitation (Mimesis) as an opponent of originality, and, thus, the principle of "Know yourself" or "Be yourself" is violated.
N. S. Trubetskoy warned against the simplified division of peoples on the best and worst:
The moment of the assessment should be once and forever expelled from the ethnology and history of culture, as in general from all evolutionary sciences, for the assessment is always based on egocentrism. No higher and lower. There are only similar and unlike. To declare similar to us with the highest, and not similar - the lowest - arbitrarily, unscientific, naively, finally, is just stupid. " The scientist wrote: "Communism is actually a distorted version of Europe, in its destruction of the spiritual foundations and the national uniqueness of Russian society, in the distribution of materialistic criteria in it, which actually rule and Europe, and America ...
Our task is to create a completely new culture, our own culture that will not be like a European civilization ... When Russia ceases to be a distorted reflection of European civilization ... When she again becomes itself: Russia - Eurasia, the conscious heiress and the beneficent of the Great Heritage Genghishana. " According to Trubetsky, Eurasian peoples are connected by the generality of historical fate: "The rejection of one people from this unity can be produced only by artificial violence over nature and should lead to suffering.
The desire to imitate the neighbors, richer and numerous. And how great the temptation "purchase" is "living space". Eurasian ethnic groups lived relatively safely in their homeland. But, penetrating to the richer neighbors or taking them from themselves, they died. There were no exception and medieval Mongols. Choining new ethnic groups and new stereotypes of behavior, they from Eurasians turned into a chimera. Penetrating into China, the winners quickly assimilated in the ocean of people.
In the article "On True and False Nationalism", Trubetskova notes that true nationalism consists not in borrowings in other people's peoples or in imposing the neighbors of their skills and ideas, and in the truth of self-knowledge, well-known in the ancient aphorisms "Konsense yourself" and "Be ourselves. "
It should be noted that universal regionalistic theories do not exist. The above approaches were born within the boundaries of a certain civilization. It would be incorrect to distribute these teachings on oriental civilizations. In the East there is a different approach to regionalization. According to the Chinese tradition, it comes from the Great Chinese order, the priority of the state over a person, selective (selective) continuity of other people's advantages. China is so self-sufficient that supramitic regional groups do not play a significant role in international relations. With the exception of one. it Big Chinauniting ethnic Chinese worldwide. Perhaps this ethnic supergrouping will resist the European Union and the United States. Unlike the "Center - Periphery" theory common in the West, the Chinese tradition highlights the three-star regional model "Center - Periphery - Borderier". In the border regions (especially seaside), the cultural and genetic code of openness, dialogue with other peoples is formed. Based on these ideas, the phased openness of modern China to the outside world began. Special zones were created in the seaside provinces - the locomotives of the open economy.
