Where the Byzantium was in the Middle Ages. What you need to know about Byzantium

The name of the capital of the Byzantine Empire is the subject of endless disputes of several generations of historians. One of the most magnificent and large cities of the world wore several names. Sometimes they were used together, sometimes separately. The ancient name of the capital of the Byzantine Empire has nothing to do with the current name of this city. How transformed the name of one of the largest European cities over the centuries? Let's try to figure out.

First residents

The first known history inhabitants of Byzantium were Megara. In 658 BC e. They founded the village in the narrowest place of the Bosphorus and called Halcedon. Almost simultaneously on the other side of the Strait, the town of Bizantine rose. After a few hundred years, both settlements merged and gave the name to the new city.

Steps to prosperity

The unique geographical location of the city allowed to control the cargoes in the Black Sea - to the shores of the Caucasus, Tavrido and Anatoly. Thanks to this, the city is rapidly rich and became one of the largest shopping centers of old world. The city changed several owners - it ruled Persians, Athenians, Macedonians, Spartans. In 74 BC e. Power in Byzantium seized Rome. For the city, this meant the offensive of peace and prosperity time - under the protection of Roman legionnaires, the city began to develop an accelerated pace.

Visantium and Rome

At the beginning of the new Millennium, the visaantium faced real by danger. The eternal rivalry of the Roman aristocrats for the right to be called the emperor led to a fatal mistake. Byzantines accepted the side of the writings of Niger, who did not become the emperor. In Rome crowned the bugger of the septimus of the North - the harsh warrior, an excellent warlord and an offacarious aristocrat. Announced by the Raption of Byzantines, the new Vladyka took the Byzantine into a long sediment. After a long confrontation, the precipitated Byzantines surrendered. Long-term military actions brought a distress and destruction city. Perhaps the city would not be revived from the ash if not the emperor Konstantin.

New name

The new ambitious emperor began his career with several military campaigns, which ended with the victory of the Roman troops. Becoming the lord of the unwarked territories of the Roman Empire, Constantine faced the fact that Eastern lands are managed by Roman governors in semi-autonomous mode. It was necessary to reduce the distance between the center and remote areas. And Konstantin decided to lay the second most important city of Rome in eastern lands. He stopped at the dilapidated Visantium and directed his efforts to turn this stubborn village to the brilliant capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Transformation began in 324. Own spear out of the border around the city. Later on this line, urban walls of the new metropolis were installed. Huge money and personal participation of the emperor made a miracle possible - literally in six years, the city became worthy of the title of the capital. The solemn discovery took place on May 11, 330. On this day, the city received a new impetus to development. Reborn, he actively settled by immigrants from other areas of the empire, acquired a pomp and shine, incorporing the new capital. So the city received his new name - Constantinople, and became a worthy embodiment of everything that represented the Byzantine Empire. The capital of this state was not in vain called the second Rome - the eastern sister on greatness and pompni did not give way to his Western brother.

Constantinople and Christianity

After the split of the Great Roman Empire, Constantinople became the center of the New State Eastern Roman Empire. Soon the country began to be called on the first name of his own capital, and in history textbooks, she received an appropriate name - the Byzantine Empire. The capital of this state played a huge role in the formation of Orthodox Christianity.

The Byzantine Church professed orthodox Christianity. Representatives of other currents Byzantine Christians considered heretics. The emperor was the personification and the secular, and the religious life of the country, but there was no power of God, as often happened to the Eastern Tiranans. The religious tradition was quite diluted with secular ceremonies and rituals. The emperor was endowed with the Divine Power, but nevertheless he was elected among ordinary mortals. There was no institution of succession - neither blood relationship nor personal connections guaranteed the Byzantine throne. In this country, everyone could become an emperor ... and almost God. Both the Lord and the city were full of power and the greatness of both secular and religious.

Hence some duality in the definition of Constantinople as the city in which the entire Byzantine Empire was concentrated. The capital of the Great Country was the place of pilgrimage for many generations of Christians - magnificent cathedrals and temples simply hit the imagination.

Rus and Byzantium

In the middle of the first millennium state Education Eastern Slavs have become how significant that they began to attract the attention of their richer neighbors. Rusichi regularly went hiking, putting the rich gifts of distant lands to their homeland. Hikes to Constantinople as far as they hit the imagination of our ancestors, which soon spread a new, Russian title of the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Our ancestors called the city of Tsargrad, thereby emphasizing his wealth and power.

Crash empire

Everything in the world has its own end. The Byzantine Empire did not avoid this fate. The capital of the once mighty state was captured and looted by the warriors of the Ottoman Empire. After establishing Turkish rule, the city lost and his name. New owners preferred to call him Stanbul (Istanbul). Languages \u200b\u200bargue that this name is twisted by tracing the ancient Greek name Polis - the city. It is under this name that the city is known and at present.

As can be seen, to the question of which the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and as it is called, there is no only answer. It is necessary to specify the historical period of interest.

The Byzantine Empire received its name from an ancient megar colony, a small town of Byzantium, in the place of which in 324-330. Emperor Konstantin founded the new capital of the Roman Empire, which then became the capital of Byzantium, - Constantinople. The name "Byzantium" appeared later. The Byzantines themselves called themselves the Romans - "Romanes" ("ρωματοι), and its empire is" Romaic ". Byzantine emperors officially called themselves the" emperors of Romeev "(ο αωμαιων), and the capital of the empire was called" New Rome "( Νεα "ρωμη). Arriving as a result of the collapse of the Roman Empire at the end of the IV century. And the transformation of its Eastern half into an independent state, Byzantium was largely a continuation of the Roman Empire, which remained the tradition of its political life and the state system. Therefore, Byzantium IV - VII centuries. Often Call the Eastern Roman Empire.

The separation of the Roman Empire to the Eastern and Western, entailed the formation of Byzantium, was prepared by the peculiarities of the socio-economic development of both Half Empire and the crisis of a slave-ownership society as a whole. The area of \u200b\u200bthe eastern part of the empire, closely connected with each other has long been the established community of historical and cultural development, was distinguished by an unfulfilled from the Hellenistic era. In these areas, it did not get so widespread as in the West, slavery; In the economic life of the village, the dependent and free population was played the main role - community peasantry; The cities have survived a lot of small free craftsmen, whose work competed with slaves. It was not so sharp, the impassable face between the slave and free, as in the western half of the Roman powers, was dominated by a variety of transition, intermediate forms of dependence. In the system of management in the village (community) and the city (municipal organization), more formal-democratic elements took place. Due to these reasons, the Eastern provinces have suffered much less western on crisis III century., Undermining the foundation of the economy of the slave-owner Roman Empire. He did not lead to the root break of the former forms of the economic building in the East. The village and the estate retained their connections with the city, the numerous free trade and craft population of which provided the needs of the local market. Cities did not experience such a deep economic decline as in the West.

All this led to the gradual movement of the Center for the Economic and Political Life of the Empire into richer and less affected by the crisis of the Eastern Province of the Working Society.

Differences in the socio-economic life of the Eastern and Western provinces of the Empire led to the gradual separation of both Half of the Empire, who ultimately prepared and their political separation. Already during the crisis III century. Eastern and Western provinces have been under the authority of various emperors. At this time, in the east, the local, Hellenistic traditions were rebound and strengthened and strengthened. Temporary output of the empire from the crisis at the end of the III - early IV century. And the strengthening of the central government did not lead to the restoration of state unity. With diocletian, power was divided between two August and two Caesars (tetrarchy - four-peposy). With the base of Constantinople, the Eastern provinces appeared a single political and cultural center. The creation of the Constantinople Senate marked the consolidation of their dominant tip - senatorial estate. Constantinople and Rome became two centers of political life - Latin West and Greek East. Eastern and Western churches are still located in the bora of church disputes. By the end of the IV century. All these processes were designated as clearly that the separation in the 395 of the Empire between the successors of the last emperor of the Unified Roman Power of Feodosia - Gonenim, who received power over the West, and Arkady, who became the first emperor of the East, was perceived as a natural phenomenon. From this time, the history of each of the applications formed went its way 1.

The separation of the empire made it possible to fully disclose the specifics of the socio-economic, political and cultural development of Byzantium. Constantinople was built as a new, "Christian", the capital, free from the cargo of an old, disturbing, as the center of the state with a stronger imperial power and a flexible control apparatus. There was a relatively close union of the imperial power and church. Constantinople arose on the verge of two epochs, which went into the past of antiquity and the bombing medieval. Engels wrote that "with the elevation of Constantinople and the fall of Rome ends with antiquity" 2. And if Rome was a symbol of oxide antiquity, then Constantinople, although he received many of her traditions, became a symbol of the emerging medieval empire.

Byzantium included all the eastern half of the broken Roman Empire. She included the Balkan Peninsula, Little Asia, Aegean Sea, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Kerenaica, Crete and Cyprus, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, individual areas of Arabia, as well as reference possessions on the southern coast of Crimea (Kherson ) And in the Caucasus. The boundary of Byzantium was not immediately determined in the north-western part of the Balkan, where for another time after the section there was a struggle between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire for Illirin and Dalmatia, who were departed in the first half of the V c. to Byzantium 3.

The territory of the empire exceeded 750,000 square meters. km. In the north, her border was held on the Danube before his imposition in the Black Sea 4, then - along the coast of the Crimea and the Caucasus. In the East, she stretched from the mountains of Iberia and Armenia, adjacent to the frontiers of the Eastern neighbor of Byzantium - Iran, led through the steppes of Mesopotamia, crossing the Tiger and Euphrates, and then along the desert steppes inhabited by the Northara Tribes, to the south to the ruins of the ancient Palmyra. From here through the deserts of Arabia, the border went to Isle (Aqaba) - on the coast of the Red Sea. Here, in the south-east, the neighbors of Byzantium were formed at the end of the III - early IV century. Arab States, South African tribes, Himjaritsky kingdom - "Happy Arabia" 5. Byzantium's south border was from the African coast of the Red Sea, along the limits of the Aksum kingdom (Ethiopia), border with Egypt regions inhabited by semi-garden tribes of vertamine (they lived on the upper flow of the Nile, between Egypt and Nubia), and then - to the West, on the outskirts of Libyan The desert in Kerenaica, where the militant Maurretan tribes of Assurian and layouts bordered with Byzantia.

The empire covered areas with a variety of natural climatic conditions. Soft Mediterranean, subtropical places, climate of coastal areas gradually passed into the continental climate of the inland areas with harsh temperature fluctuations, hot and arid (especially in the south and east of the country) in summer and cold, snowy (Balkans, in part, rainy asia) or warm, rainy (Syria, Palestine, Egypt) in winter.

Most of the territory of Byzantium occupied mountain or mountainous areas (Greece, including Peloponnese, Small Asia, Syria, Palestine). Comparatively extensive plain spaces were some invented areas: Danube Dolta, fertile South African plain, covered with rare shrub Hollocels of the inside of the inner Minor Asia, semi-desert semi-desert empire. The plain terrain prevailed in the south - in Egypt and Kerenaica.

The territory of the empire consisted mainly of areas with high agricultural culture. In many of them, fertile soils allowed to grow 2-3 yields per year. However, agriculture was almost everywhere possible only under the condition of additional watering or irrigation. Wherever the conditions allowed, grain crops were grown - wheat and barley. The rest of the irrigation or irrigated land were occupied under gardening crops, more arid - under vineyards and olive plantations. In the south, the culture of the father's palm trees was widespread. On the floodplain meadows, and mostly on the mountain slopes covered with shrubs and forests, in alpine alpine meadows and in the semi-deserted semi-deserts of the East, cattle breeding was developed.

Natural climatic and water conditions determined well-known differences in the economic formation of different areas of the empire. The main area of \u200b\u200bgrain production was Egypt. With IV century The second resident of the empire became Frace. A significant amount of grain and fertile river valleys of Macedonia and Fessiona, hilly Viphinia, the area of \u200b\u200bthe Black Sea region, irrigated by the Oronte and Jordan of the Land of Northern Syria and Palestine, as well as Mesopotamia.

Greece, the islands of the Egeida, the coast of Malaya Asia, Syria, Palestine - these were areas of garden crops and grapes. The luxurious vineyards and fields that fell on bread were rich even mountain Isavor. One of the largest centers of viticulture was Kilicia. Significant sizes reached viticulture and in Thrace. Greece, Western Small Asia, the internal areas of Syria and Palestine served as the main centers of olive production. In kilicia and especially Egypt in large quantities Leng was grown, as well as the podlovy (beans), which made foods of a simple people, Greece, Fessiona, Macedonia and Epirus were famous for their honey, Palestine - Fennik Palm trees and pistachio trees.

In the Western regions, the Balkans, Frakia, inner areas of Asia Minor, in the steppe spaces of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Kerenaiki was widely developed livestock. At low, shrubs covered with shrubs of the mountains of Greece and the coast of Malaya Asia, a thin-oestous goat was divorced. Inside areas of Malaya Asia (Cappadocia, Halkidiki, Macedonia's steppes) were sheepodic; Epir, Fessiona, Frace, Cappadocia - horse breeding; Hilly areas of Western Maja Asia and Viphinia with their oak forests were the main areas of pig breeding. In Cappadocia, in the steppes of Mesopotamia, Syria and Kerenairi, the best breeds of horses and coochmets - camels, mules were divorced. The eastern borders of the Empire were distributed various forms of half-blooded and nomadic cattle breeding. The fame of Fessals, Macedonia and Epira was the cheese made here - he was called "Dardansky". Small Asia was one of the main areas of leather production and leather products; Syria, Palestine, Egypt - flax and woolen fabrics.

Rich was Byzantia and natural resources. The water of the Adriatic, the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea coast of Malaya Asia, especially Ponta, Fiancia, Egypt, rejected fish. Forest arrays were significant; In Dalmatia, there was an excellent construction and ship forest 6. In many areas of the empire, there were huge clay deposits used to produce ceramic products; sand suitable for the manufacture of glass (primarily Egypt and Phenic); Building stone, marble (especially Greece, Islands, Small Asia), ornamental stones (Small Asia). Empire has a significant deposit of minerals. The iron was mined in the Balkans, in Ponte, Malaya Asia, in the Mountains of the Tavra, in Greece, in Cyprus, Copper - in the famous Fennic mines of Arabia; lead - in Pergamum and on Chalkidik; Zinc - in the Troadade; Natro and alum - in Egypt. The Balkan provinces were a real settlement of minerals, which produced the bulk of gold, silver, iron and copper in the empire. A lot of minerals were in the field of Ponta, in Byzantine Armenia (iron, silver, gold) 7. Iron and gold empire was much richer than all neighboring countries. However, tin and partly silver was lacking: they had to be imported from Britain and Spain.

On the coast of the Adriatic, from the salted lakes of Malaya Asia and Egypt received salt. In sufficient quantities were in Byzantium and different types Mineral and vegetable raw materials from which dyes were made, aromatic resins were chased; Here were now the disappeared plant of Sylphy, and Saffron, and a lacquer root, and various medicinal plants. The coast of Low Asia and Phenicia was mined Murex sink, which served to prepare the famous purple paint.

Egypt - Delta and the bank of Nile - was the main area of \u200b\u200bthe Mediterranean, where a special reed grown (now rarely found in the upper reaches of the river), from which the most important writing material of that time - papyrus (it was also manufactured in Sicily).

Byzantium could provide its needs in almost all major products, and some of them even significantly export to other countries (grain, oil, fish, fabric, metal and metal products). All this created a well-known economic sustainability in the Empire, allowed to lead a fairly wide external trade as agricultural products and craft products, bringing predominantly luxury objects and precious oriental raw materials, oriental spices, flavors, silk. The territorial position of the empire made it in the IV-VI centuries. Monopoly mediator in trade between the West and East.

The population of the huge Byzantine Empire in the IV-VI centuries, according to some researchers, reached 50-65 million 8 in the ethnic terms of Byzantium, was a motley association of dozens of tribes and peoples that were at different stages of development.

The most numerous part of its population was the Greeks and the Hellenized locals inhabitants of the vigorous regions. Greek has become the most common, and the Greeks actually - the dominant nationality. In addition to the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands were purely Greek in the population, most of the coast of Byzantine Africa and Western Malaya Asia. Very significant was the Greek element in Macedonia and Epiere.

Pretty many Greeks lived in the eastern half of the Balkans, on the Black Sea coast in Malaya Asia, in Syria, Palestine, Egypt, where they constituted the prevailing percentage of urban population.

The Latin population in the eastern half of the former Roman empire was distinguished by comparative few. Considerable it was only in northwestern regions The Balkan Peninsula, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan and along the Danube Border - to Dakia inclusive. Pretty many Romans lived in the cities of Western Malaya Asia. In the rest of the Eastern Half Empire, the Romanization was very weak, and even representatives of the most educated part of the local nobility usually did not know the Latin language. Small groups of Romans are several dozen, rarely - hundreds of families - focused in the largest administrative and trade and craft centers. There were several more of them in Palestine.

Significant and widely scattered according to the most important areas of the empire was the Jewish population. Large compact mass on the territory of Palestine Jews and Samaritans, close to everyday life and faith to Jews, were numerous in neighboring provinces - Syria and Mesopotamia. Large Jewish communities had in Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and other cities. Jews preserved their ethnic identity, religion, language. In the period of the Roman Empire, there was a huge Talmudic literature in the Jewish language.

The large group of the population of Byzantium was the Illyrians living in the north-west. They are more novelized, led to the spread and establishment of Latin's domination and writing. However, in the IV century. Illyrians survived the famous features of ethnic peculiarities, especially in rural, mountainous areas. They preserved freedom in the main mass, a strong community organization, spirit of independence. The warlike tribe of the Illyrians gave the best contingents of the Late Rime and Earnevianizan army. The Illyrian language, which was consumed in colloquial speech, played a considerable role in the formation of the Albanian language.

Macedonian lived on the territory of Macedonia - rather numerous peoples that have long been exposed to intensive hallenization and nomanization.

The eastern half of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited Thracians - one of the largest nation of the Balkan Peninsula. The numerous free peasantry of Thrace lived by communities in which the remnants of generic relations were often held. Despite the strong Hellenization and the nomanization of Thrace, its population and in IV century. So different from the population of the Hellenized regions of the East, that Eastern Writers were often called the "Barbaric Country" Frace. Free Thracian farmers and herders, tall, strong and enduring, used deserved glory almost the best warriors of the empire.

After the loss of the empire of the entire Sannaya Dacia, there were very few dacians on the territory of Byzantium: they were resettled in the border areas of Mizia.

Starting from the middle of the III century. In the ethnic composition of the Danube provinces there were significant changes. From this time, the barbaric tribes, the goths, carps, sarmatics, calm, vandals, alans, sings, boran, burgundy, tervings, Grevtungi, Geruly, Gepiuda, Grevarni 9. Each of these tribes numbered tens of thousands of people. In IV-V centuries. The tributary of the barbarians increased markedly. Already before that, in the III-IV centuries, the Hermann and Sarmatov tribes that had surrounded the empire, which were in different stages of the decomposition of primitive communal relations, were noticeably developed by the productive forces, there were powerful tribal unions, which allowed the barbarians to seize the border areas of the weak Roman Empire.

One of the largest was the Gothic Union, which united at the end of the III - early IV century. Many of the most developed, agricultural, sedentary and semi-seed tribes of the Black Sea region, which were moving from the primitive-communal system to class. U was ready to have their kings, numerous to know, there was slavery. Eastern Writers considered them the most developed and cultural from northern barbarians. From the end of the III - the beginning of the IV century. Among ready to spread Christianity.

By the middle of the IV century. The unions of the tribes of Vandals, ready, Sarmatians were strengthened and strengthened. As farming and craft develops, their campaigns have been taken on the empire not so much for the production and prisoners, how much to capture fertile, suitable for processing lands. The government, being unable to restrain the head of the barbarians, was forced to provide them with devastated border areas, placed on these settlers to the defense of state bubbles. Especially intensified by the Natisk is ready for the Danube borders of the empire in the second half of the IV century., Mainly from the 70s, when they began to be crowned by the middle nomads moving from Asia - Huns. Armored goths, Sarmatians, Alans nomads moved to the Danube. The government allowed them to switch the border and take the empty border areas. Tens of thousands of barbarians were resets in Mizia, Thrace, Dakia. Somewhat later, they penetrated Macedonia and Greece, partly assieved in the lowland areas - in Frigia and Lydia. Outputs settled in the Western Dongyas (Panonia), Westges in Eastern (Northern Frakia).

In V c. Gunns reached the limits of the empire. They submitted to themselves many barbaric peoples and created a powerful union of tribes. Within a few decades, Huns attacked the Balkan Provinces of the Empire, reaching farmopyl. Frakia, Macedonia and Illirin were devastated by their raids.

Mass invasions and settlement of Balkan lands were led to a significant reduction in the Greek, Hellenized and the number of these provinces of Byzantium, to the gradual disappearance of the Macedonian and Thracian nations.

The Gun Union tribes broke up in the internal contradictions collapsed in the 50s V c. (after the death of Attila). The remnants of the Huns and the tribes subject to them were kept in the territory of the Empire. Games inhabited Dakia, Goths - Pannonia. They took a number of cities, from which the nearest to the empire was syrmins, and the distant - Windows, or Windobon (Vienna). Many Huns, Sarmatov, Skirov, was ready to settle in Illyric and Thrace.

From the end of V c. The Byzantine possessions began to penetrate other tribes, approached the borders of the empire, - protobolgars-Turks - nomads who experienced the process of decomposition of primitive-general relations, and the agricultural tribes of Slavs, whose settlements at the end of V c. Danube borders of the Empire appear.

By the time of the formation of Byzantium, the process of the Hellenization of the indigenous population in the internal eastern regions of Malaya Asia was still not completed. Authors of IV-V centuries. Disranged describe the primitive rustic life of residents of these regions. Many local languages \u200b\u200bretained the known value. The leaders who had in the past developed civilization and statehood possessed their writing. Local languages \u200b\u200bwere distributed to Karya and Frigia. Frigian language still in the V-VI centuries. I existed as a conversational. Ethnic identity also retained residents of Galatia and Isavor, the population of which only in IV-V centuries. The authorities of the Byzantine government were subordinated. In Cappadocia, Hellenization seriously touched on only the highest sections of the local population. The main mass of rural residents in the IV century. He continued to speak at the local, Aramaic, language, although Greek served as official language.

In the eastern part of Ponta, in small Armenia and Kolchide lived various local tribes: Tsana (Lases), Albani, Abazgi. Many tribes that have inhabited border balconies and the fields of Malaya Asia have held the remnants of generic relations.

Back in IV-V centuries. The warlike tribe of Isavra lived clans, obeying its generic and breeding leaders and little believed to the government.

After the section in 387, Armenian state of Arshakids included approximately the fourth part of it: Western (Small) Armenia, internal Armenia and autonomous principalitys. Armenians who have passed by this time a centuries-old path of historical development experienced in IV-V centuries. The period of decomposition of the slaveholding and the origin of feudal relations. At the end of the IV century. Mesrop Mashtotts was created by the Armenian alphabet, and in V c. There was an active development of Armenian literature, art, theater. Taking advantage of the spread of Christianity in Armenia, Byzantium sought to master all Armenian lands for which Iran's fight was struggling. In IV-V centuries. The Armenian population appeared in other areas and cities of the Empire. At the same time, Byzantium, relying on some points of the Caucasian coast, it sought strengthening its influence in Georgia, where from the IV century. Christianity also spread. Georgia was divided by the Likhsky ridge into two kingdoms: Lasika (ancient Kolkhida) - in the West and Kartli (Ancient Iberia) - in the East. Although Iran in IV-V centuries. I strengthened my power in Iberia, the state of Lases associated with Byzantium was strengthened in Western Georgia. In the predfaccazier, on the coast of the Black and Azov seas, Byzantium had an impact among the Adygian Circassian tribes.

The areas adjacent to Cappadocia and Armenia were populated by Aramey, and the areas are fertilized - Aramaic Syrian and partly Arabic nomads. Mixed - Syrian-Greek - there was also the population of Kilikia. At the boundaries of Malaya Asia and Syria, in the mountains of Lebanon, the numerous tribe of Mardaites lived.

The overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Byzantine Syria were semiti-Syrians who had their own language and established cultural and historical traditions. Only a very small part of the Syrians underwent more or less deep Hellenization. Greeks lived here only in large cities. Village and smaller trade and craft centers were almost entirely in the Syrians; Of these, a significant layer of the population of large cities also consisted. In IV century The process of forming the Syrian nationality continued, the Syrian literary language was drawn up, bright and distinctive literature appeared. The main cultural and religious center of the Syrian population of the empire became Edessa.

In the southeastern border areas of Byzantium, east of Syria, Palestine and Southern Mesopotamia, starting with fear of felling and further to the south, the Arabs, who conducted a semi-armored and nomadic lifestyle. Part of them more or less firmly settled within the empire, was influenced by Christianity, the other - continued to wadden from her borders, from time to time invading the Byzantine territory. In IV-V centuries. The process of consolidation of the Arab tribes occurred, the Arabician population was developed, the development was arabic and writing. At this time, more or less large associations of tribes - Gassanids and Lahmid states were developed; For influence on them, Iran and Byzantium fought.

In the Kerenaic of the dominant interlayer, concentrated in the cities, were the Greeks, an electrical local top and a small number of Romans. The famous part of merchants and artisans amounted to Jews. The absolute majority of the rural population belonged to the country's indigenous people.

Ethnically extremely diverse was the population of Byzantine Egypt 10. Here it was possible to meet the Romans, Syrians, Libyans, Cylitians, Ethiopians, Arabs, Bactrians, Scythians, Germans, Indians, Persians, etc., but the main mass of the inhabitants was the Egyptians - they are customary to call Copses - and very inferior to them in the number of Greeks And Jews. Coptic language was the main means of communication of the indigenous population, many Egyptians did not know and did not want to know the Greek language. With the spread of Christianity, a religious Coptic literature appeared, adapted to the folk tastes. At the same time, the original Coptic art developed, which had a great influence on the formation of Byzantine art. Copts hated the exploitative Byzantine state. In the historical conditions of that time, this antagonism took a religious form: Initially, the Copt-Christians opposed the Hellenized population - to the pagans, then the Copt-monofisitis - Greeks-Orthodox.

The discharge composition of the population of Byzantium had a certain impact on the nature of the socio-political relations developed here. Prerequisites for the formation of a single "Byzantine" nation was not. On the contrary, the large compact ethnic groups that lived in the empire themselves were natives (Syrians, Copts, Arabs, etc.), which were in the process of their formation and development. Therefore, as the crisis of the slave-owned production method is deepened, along with social, ethnic contradictions aggravated. The relations between the cultivals inhabited by the empire and the peoples were one of the most important internal problems in Byzantium. The dominant Greco-Roman know relied on the well-known elements of political and cultural communities, which have developed during the period of Hellenism and the existence of the Roman Empire. The revival of Hellenistic traditions in social, political and spiritual life and the gradual weakening of the influence of the Roman traditions were one of the manifestations of the consolidation of the Eastern Roman Empire. Using the community of class interests of the dominant layers of various tribes and nationalities, as well as Hellenistic traditions and Christianity, the Greco-Roman aristocracy sought to strengthen the unity of Byzantium. At the same time, the policy of inciting contradictions between different peoples in order to keep them in submission in such a way. For two to two and a half centuries, Byzantium, it was possible to preserve their dominion over the blanks, semites-Syrians, Jews, Aramey. At the same time, the main ethnic core of Byzantium gradually developed on Greek and Hellenized territories that were constantly part of the Eastern Roman Education.

Constantinople - in the center of the world

On May 11, 330, the New Capital of the Empire was solemnly founded from the Nativity of Christ on the European Bosphorus of Bosporus, Constantinople (and to be accurate and use its official name, then the new Rome). The emperor did not create a new state: Byzantia in the exact sense of the word was not the succession of the Roman Empire, she was and was Rome. The word "Byzantium" appeared only in the West in the Renaissance Epoch. The Byzantines were called the Romans (Romains), their country - the Roman Empire (Romeev Empire). Constantine's ideas corresponded to the same name. The new Rome was erected at the main crossroads of the main trading paths and was originally planned as the greatest of the cities. Erected in the 6th century, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia over a thousand years was the highest architectural structure on Earth, and in beauty compared with heaven.

Until the middle of the XII century, the new Rome was the main trading site of the planet. Before the ruin of the Crusaders in 1204, this is also the most populated city of Europe. Later, especially in the last one and a half century, there were more significant centers in the earthly ball. But in our time, the strategic importance of this place would be difficult to overestimate. Writhing Bosphorus and Dardanelles with the Straits of the Middle and Middle East, and this is the heart of Eurasia and the whole old world. In the XIX century, the real owner of the straits was the British Empire, who protected this place from Russia even at the price of an open military conflict (during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and the war could begin in 1836, and in 1878). For Russia, it was not just a question of the "historical heritage", but the ability to control his southern frontiers and main trading flows. After 1945, the keys from the straits were in the hands of the United States, and the placement of American nuclear weapons in this region, as you know, immediately caused the emergence of Soviet missiles in Cuba and provoked the Caribbean crisis. The USSR agreed to retreat only after turning the American nuclear potential in Turkey. The current issues of Turkey entering the European Union and her foreign Policy In Asia - primary problems for the West.

The rest of them just dreamed

New Rome received a rich inheritance. However, it became its main "headache." In the modern world, there were too many applicants for the assignment of this inheritance. It is difficult to recall at least one long period of calm on the Byzantine borders; The empire was in mortal danger at least in a century. Until the VII century, the hardest war with Persians, Goths, Vandals, Slavs and Avaras, and Avara, and ultimately the confrontation ended in favor of the new Rome. It happened very often: the young and breathtaking peoples, who fought with the empire, went into historical non-existence, and the empire itself, ancient and almost fallen, lied wounds and continued to live. However, then to replace the same enemies from the south of Arabs, from the West - Langobard, from the north - Bulgarians, from the east - Khazara, and a new centuries-old confrontation began. As new opponents weaken, they were replaced by the North of Rus, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, in the East - Seljuky Turks, in the West - Normans.

In the fight against enemies, the Empire used the strength of diplomacy, exploration, military trick, sometimes - and allies. The last remedy was double-edged and extremely dangerous. Crusaders who fought with the Selzhuki were extremely burdensome and dangerous allies for the Empire, and this is the first to be the first for Konstantinople with a fall: the city, a nearly a thousand years, who successfully beat off any attacks and sieges, was brutally ruined with his "friends." Its further existence, even after liberation from the crusaders, was only the shadow of the previous glory. But just at that time, the last and most cruel enemy appeared - the Omman Turks, which in their military qualities exceeded all previous ones. The Europeans truly ahead of Ottomans in military business only in the XVIII century, and the Russians were made first, and the first commander, daring to appear in the internal regions of the Sultanian Empire, was Count Peter Rumyantsev, for which he received the honorary name of the Sannaya.

Reasonable subjects

The inner state of the Roma Empire was also never calm. The state territory it was extremely heterogeneous. At one time, the Roman Empire supported unity due to the excellent military, commercial and cultural potential. Legal system (the famous Roman law, finally codified in Byzantium) was the most perfect in the world. For several centuries (since Spartacus), Rome, within which more than a quarter of all mankind lived, did not threaten any serious danger, the war went on distant borders - in Germany, Armenia, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Only an internal decomposition, the crisis of the army and the weakening of trade led to disintegration. Only from the end of the IV century, the position at the borders was critical. The need for the reflection of barbarian invasions in different directions inevitably led to the separation of power in a huge empire between several people. However, it had a negative consequence - an internal confrontation, a further weakening of relations and the desire to "privatize" their piece of imperial territory. As a result, to the V century, the final separation of the Roman Empire became a fact, but did not facilitate the situation.

The eastern half of the Roman Empire was more inhabited and Christianized (by the time Konstantin of the Great Christians, despite the persecution, there were already more than 10% of the population), but in itself did not make an organic whole. The state reigned an amazing ethnic manifold: Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Arabs, Armenians, Illyanians lived here, Slavs, Germans, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, Turks, Italians and many other nationalities, from which the confession of the true faith and the subordination of the imperial authorities . The richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - were geographically too distant from the capital, drilled off with mountain ranges and deserts. Marine communication with them as the trading and heyday of piracy was increasingly difficult. In addition, the overwhelming majority of the population here were adherents of the Monophimita heresy. After the victory of Orthodoxy at the Khalkidon Cathedral of 451 years in these provinces, a powerful uprising broke out, with great difficulty suppressed. In less than 200 years, Monophysites happily met the Arab "liberators" and subsequently relatively painlessly moved to Islam. The Western and Central Provinces of the Empire, primarily the Balkans, but also a small asia, for long centuries, experienced a massive influx of barbaric tribes - Germanians, Slavs, Turks. The emperor Justinian Great in the 6th century tried to push the state borders in the West and restore the Roman Empire in its "natural boundaries", but it led to tremendous efforts and costs. Already through the century of Byzantium was forced to hit the limits of his "state core", mainly inhabited by the Greeks and Hellenized Slavs. This territory included the West of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Balkans and South Italy. Further struggle for existence mainly was already on this territory.

The people and the army are one

The constant struggle required permanent maintenance of defense capability. The Romean Empire was forced to revive the peasant militia characteristic of the ancient Rome of the Republican period and a heavy horse arrow, to re-create and maintain a powerful navy for the state account. Defense has always been the main expense of the treasury and the main burden for the taxpayer. The state intently covered the peasants to preserve their combat capability, and therefore in every way strengthened the community, interfering with her decay. The state struggled with an excessive concentration of wealth, including land, in private hands. The public settlement of prices was a very important part of politics. The powerful state apparatus, of course, gave rise to omnipotence of officials and large-scale corruption. Active emperors fought abuses, inert - launched a disease.

Of course, slow social bundles and limited competition reduced the pace of economic development, but the fact of the matter is that the empire has more important tasks. Not from the good life of the Byzantines equipped their armed forces with all sorts of technical innovations and types of weapons, the most famous of which became invented in the VII century "Greek Fire", which brought Romanem not one victory. The army of the empire retained his morale until the second half of the XII century, until he lost his place to foreign mercenaries. The treasury was now spent less, but the risk of passing it into the enemy's hands is immeasurably increased. Recall the classic expression of one of the recognized connoisseurs of the question - Napoleon Bonaparte: The people who do not want to feed their army will feed someone else's. From this time the empire and began to depend on Western "friends", which immediately showed her, how much is friendship.

Self-adjusting

The circumstances of the Byzantine life strengthened the conscious need for the autocratic power of the emperor (Vasilevs Romeyev). But from his personality, character, the abilities depended too much. That is why the empire has developed a flexible system of transmission of supreme power. In specific circumstances, the authorities could be transferred not only to the son, but also to her nephew, son-in-law, Shurina, her husband, adopted by the successor, even his own father or mother. The transfer of power was fixed by the decision of the senate and the army, the folk approval, church wedding (from the X century, the practice of imperial world-formation was borrowed in the West). As a result, the imperial dynasties were rarely worried about their centenary anniversary, only the most talented - Macedonian dynasty managed to hold out for almost two centuries - from 867 to 1056 years. A man of low origin could be on the throne, which nominated for one or another talents (for example, the butcher from Dakia Lion Mchell, commoner from Dalmatia and Uncle of the Great Justinian Justin I or the Son of the Armenian Peasant Vasily Macedonian - the founder of the Macedonian dynasty). The tradition of co-guarantee was extremely developed (co-guards were in the Byzantine throne as a whole about two hundred years). The government had to be tightly kept in their hands: For the entire Byzantine history, about forty successful state films occurred, they usually ended with the death of defeated the rulers or remove it to the monastery. Only half of Vasilesov died on his death on the throne.

Empire as Catechon

The very existence of the empire was more responsible for Byzantium and debt than the advantage or rational choice. The ancient world, the only direct heir of which was the Empire Romeev, went to the historical past. However, its cultural and political heritage became the basis of Byzantium. The Empire since Constantine was also a stronghold of the Christian faith. The state political doctrine was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe empire as "Catechon" - the keeper of the true faith. Barbara-Germans who flooded the whole western part of Roman Okumens took Christianity, but only in the Arian heretic version. The only major "acquisition" of the Universal Church in the West up to the VIII century were francs. Announced the Nicene Symbol of Faith King Frankings Chlodwig immediately received the spiritual and political support of the Roman Patriarch Pope and the Byzantine Emperor. From this, the growth of the power of francs in the west of Europe began: Chlodwig was granted by the title of Byzantine Patricia, and his far heir to Karl the Great in three centuries had already wanted to refer to the emperor of the West.

Byzantine mission of that period could well argue with West. Missionaries of the Constantinople church preached in the space of Central and Eastern Europe - from the Czech Republic to Novgorod and Khazaria; Close contacts with the Byzantine Church supported English and Irish local churches. However, the papal Rome began to renew riskly enough to competitors and expelled them with the help of force, soon the mission itself at the Papoon West acquired an aggressive nature and mainly political tasks. The first large-scale action after the disappearance of Rome from Orthodoxy was the papal blessing of Wilhelm the conqueror to go to England in 1066; After that, many representatives of the Orthodox Anglo-Saxon nobility were forced to emigrate to Constantinople.

Inside the most Byzantine Empire on religious grounds, sharp disputes walked. That is the people, then in power the heretical trends arose. Under the influence of Islam, the emperors began in the VIII century, the iconological persecutions that caused the resistance of the Orthodox people. In the XIII century, from the desire to strengthen the relationship with the Catholic world, the power went to the Ulya, but again did not receive support. All attempts to "reform" Orthodoxy based on the conjunctural considerations or to bring it under the "Earth Standards" did not succeed. A new study in the XV century, concluded under the threat of Ottoman conquest, could no longer provide even political success. She became a bitter grin of history over the vigorous ambitions of the rulers.

What is the advantage of the West?

When and what the West began to take the top? As always, in economics and technology. In the field of culture and the rights, science and education, literature and art of Byzantium until the XII century, it was easily competing or much out of the western neighbors. The powerful cultural influence of Byzantium was felt in the West and East far beyond its borders - in the Arab Spain and the Norman Britain, and in Catholic Italy it dominated the Renaissance era. However, due to the conditions of the existence of the empire, it could not boast of special socio-economic successes. In addition, Italy and South France were originally more favorable for agricultural activities than Balkans and Small Asia. In the XII-XIV centuries in Western Europe, a rapid economic rise occurs - such that was not with ancient times and will not be then up to the XVIII century. It was a heyday of feudalism, papacy and chivalry. It was at that time that the special feudal structure of the Western European society with its corporate rights and contractual relations arose and approved (the modern West came out of this).

Western influence on the Byzantine emperors from the Komninov dynasty in the XII century was the strongest: they copied Western military art, Western fashion, once again performed the allies of the Crusaders. Byzantine fleet, so burdensome for the treasury, was dissolved and rotted, his place was taken by flotilla of Venetians and Genoesers. The emperors cherished the hope of overcoming not as long as the discharge of the papal Rome. However, the strengthened Rome has already recognized only the complete submission of his will. The West was surprised at the imperial brilliance and in justifying his aggressiveness was loudly outraged by the twoness and depravity of the Greeks.

Did the Greeks die in debauchery? Sin adjacent to grace. The horrors of palaces and urban areas were interspersed with the genuine holiness of the monasteries and sincere sowing of the laity. Evidence of this - the lives of saints, liturgical texts, high and not surpassed Byzantine art. But temptations were very strong. After the defeat of 1204, in Byzantium, the pro-Western current is enhanced, young people go to study in Italy, in the intelligentsia environment arises for the pagan Ellin tradition. Philosophical rationalism and European scholasticism (and based on the same pagan scholarship) began to be considered in this environment as higher and sophisticated teachings than the solemnast ascetic theology. Intellect took the top over the revelation, individualism - above the Christian feat. Later, these trends, together with the development of the Western European Renaissance moved to the West, the development of the Western European Renaissance.

Historical scope

The empire survived in the fight against the Crusaders: in the Asian Bosphorus coast, opposite the defeated Constantinople, Roma retained their territory and proclaimed the new emperor. After half a century, the capital was released and lasted for another 200 years. However, the territory of the revived empire was practically cooled to the most important city, several islands in the Aegean Sea and small territories in Greece. But without this epiloga, the Empire Romeyev existed almost a whole millennium. In this case, it is not even taken into account that the concern that Byzantium continues to continue the ancient Roman statehood, and the foundation of Rome was considered to be the foundation of Rome in 753 to the Nativity of Christ. Even without these reservations, there is no such example in world history. Empires exist for years (Napoleon's Empire: 1804-1814), decades (German Empire: 1871-1918), in best case - centuries. The Han Empire in China existed four centuries, the Ottoman Empire and Arab Khalifat - a little more, but by the end of his life cycle They became only the fiction of the empires. The sacred Roman Empire of the German Nation based on the most part of its existence was fiction. Not so much in the world can also consist of both countries that did not claim imperial status and continuously existed a millennarian. Finally, Byzantium and its historical predecessor - the ancient Rome - demonstrated the "world record" of survival: any state on Earth kept at best one or two global invasions, Byzantium - much more. Only Russia could be compared with Byzantium.

Why Pala Czantia?

The successors answered this question in different ways. The Pskov Older Philofee at the beginning of the XVI century believed that Byzantia, adopting the Ulya, changed Orthodoxy, and this was the reason for her death. However, he argued that the cauit of Byzantium was conditionally: the status of the Orthodox Empire was transferred to the only remaining sovereign Orthodox state - Moscow. In this, according to the thought of Philof, there were no merit of Russians themselves, such was the Will of God. However, the fate of the world from Russians from Russians: if Orthodoxy falls in Russia, then with him and the world will soon end. Thus, Filofey warned Moscow about great historical and religious liability. Herb Paleologists inherited by Russia - a double-headed eagle - a symbol of such responsibility, the grave cross of the imperial burden.

The younger contemporary of the elder Ivan Timofeyev, a professional warrior, pointed out other reasons for the fall of the empire: emperors, trusting flattened and irresponsible advisers, despised the military business and lost the combat readiness. About the sad Byzantine example of the loss of the combat spirit, which caused the death of the Great Empire, also said Peter Great: a solemn speech was uttered in the presence of Senate, Synod and General in the Trinity Cathedral of St. Petersburg on October 22, 1721, on the day of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, when taking king of the imperial title. As you can see, all three - the elder, the warrior and the newly promoted emperor - had in mind close things, only in a different aspect. The power of the Empire Romeev was held on the strong power, the strong army and loyalty of the subjects, but they themselves should have to have a solid and true faith. And in this sense of the empire, more precisely, all those people who have always balanced between eternity and peril. In the constant relevance of this choice - an amazing and unique taste of Byzantine history. In other words, this story in all its bright and dark sides is a vivid testimony of the rightness of consideration from the rank of Orthodoxy celebrations: "This vera Apostolic, this Vera Otean, this faith Orthodox, this faith of the Universe is approved!"

Capital
Konstantinopol.
(330 - 1204 and 1261 - 1453)

Languages
Greek (in the first centuries of existence of the official language was Latin)

Religion
Orthodox Church

Emperor

– 306 – 337
Konstantin Great

– 1449 – 1453
Konstantin XI

Megas Doux

- Up to 1453.
Duk notar

Historic period
Middle Ages.

- Based
330

- The foundation of Constantinople
May 11 330.

- Church Schisma
1054

- fourth crusade
1204

- Wanting Constantinople
1261

- stopped existence
1453

Area

- Peak
4500000 km 2.

Population

- 4th century
34000000? persons

Currency
Solid, hyperpiron

Up to the 13th century
The date of foundation is traditionally considered the restoration of Constantinople as a new capital of the Roman Empire
Div. Thaila, provided by the Tulaan University History Department. The data are based on the calculations of J.S. Russell "Later ancient and medieval population" (1958), ASIN B000IU7OZQ.

(Basileia Ton Romaion, the Kingdom of Romeyev, the Kingdom of Roman, Roman Empire, 395-1453) is a medieval state, the eastern part of the Roman Empire.
The name "Byzantine Empire" The state received in the writings of historians after its fall, for the first time from the German scientist Jeronim Wolf in 1557. The name comes from the medieval name of Byzantium, which was denoted by the settlement that existed on the site of modern Istanbul (Tsargrad, Constantinople) to the restructuring of his Konstantin Great .
Residents of the Empire, among whom were the ancestors of modern Greeks, South Slavs, Romanians, Moldovan, Italians, French, Spaniards, Turks, Arabs, Armenians and many other modern peoples called themselves Romains or Romans. They sometimes called the empire itself simply "Romania", but they often called it - the state of Romeyev. Capital - Constantinople (Antique Byzantine, Slavic Tsargrad, now Istanbul).
As the heiress of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine state not only inherited his rich provinces and retained the cultural heritage, therefore for a long time he was a spiritual, cultural, economic and political center of the sedzene carrier. Her capital - Constantinople (Ancient Byzantine) in the documents of those times was called Rome. Her rulers during the greatest power ruled land from the African deserts to the Danube coast, from the Gibraltar Strait to the Caucasus Rats.
There is no consensus when the Byzantine Empire was formed. Many consider Konstantin I (306-337), the founder of Constantinople, for the first Byzantine emperor. Some historians believe that this event occurred in advance during the reign of Diocletian (284-305), which to facilitate the management of a huge empire, officially divided it into Eastern and Western half. Others consider the fracture reign of Feodosia I (379-395) and the official squeezing of paganism of paganism, or, with his death in 395, when the political separation between the eastern and western parts of the Empire stood up. Also, the milestone is 476, when Romulus Augustus, the last western emperor refused power and, accordingly, the emperor remained only in Constantinople. An important point It became 620 when the emperor Irakli state language officially became Greek.
The decline of the empire is associated with many reasons, both external and internal. This is the development of other regions of the world, in particular Western Europe (primarily Italy, Venetian and Genoese Republic), as well as Islam countries. It is also an aggravation of contradictions between various regions of the empire and split it into the Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian and other kingdoms.
It is believed that the empire ceased to exist with the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, although its remnants existed for several more years, until the Mr. Fall in 1460 and the Trapezund Empire in 1461. But it should be noted that medieval South Slavic sources should be described by the fall of the Byzantine Empire. The fall in the Roman or Roma Empire (after all, they also considered Romanes), and how the fall in the Greek kingdom is one of the kingdoms, which was part of the empire. It should also be remembered that both the emperors of the Sultan Roman Empire and the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire called themselves the Roman emperors and the heirs of the Roman Empire.
The greatest territories of the Empire controlled under the Emperor Justinian I, who led a wide conquest policy in the Western Mediterranean, seeking to restore the former Roman Empire. From this time, she gradually lost the land under the onslaught of the barbaric kingdoms and the Eastern European tribes. After arab conquest He held only the territory of Greece and Malaya Asia. The strengthening in the IX-XI centuries was changed by serious losses, the collapse of the country under the blows of the Crusaders and the death under the onslaught of the Turks-Seljuk and Turkish Ommans.
The ethnic composition of the Byzantine Empire population, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely motley: the Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Jews, Hellenized Multiaziary tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Daki. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the VII century), some of the peoples remained outside of its limits - at the same time new peoples came here and spread (goths in the IV-V century, Slavs in the VI-VII century, Arabs in VII- and century, Pechenegi , Polovtsy in the XI-XIII century, etc.). In the VI-XI centuries. The population of Byzantium included ethnic groups, of which the Italian population was formed. The prevailing role in the economy, political life and the culture of Byzantium was played by the Greek population. The state language of Byzantium in the IV-VI centuries is Latin, from the VII century to the end of the existence of the Empire - Greek.
History
Separation on the Eastern and Western Roman Empire
The map of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires at 395, after the death of Feodosia I 11 May 330, the Roman emperor Konstantin Great declared his capital the city of Byzantium, renaming it to Constantinople. The need for the transfer of the capital was primarily caused by the remoteness of the previous capital - Rome - from the tense eastern and northeastern borders of the Empire. Features of the political tradition made mandatory personal control of the emperor over powerful military, to organize defense from Constantinople could be much faster and at the same time control the troops could be more effective than from Rome.
The final separation of the Roman Empire on the Eastern and Western occurred after death in 395 Feodosius the Great. The main difference between the Byzantium from the Western Roman Empire (Greek) was the predominance of the Greek culture on its territory, almost completely a latinized event. Over time, the Roman legacy has ever changed under local influence and as a result of development, however, it is impossible to carry out a sharp boundary between Rome and Byzantium, which is always self-imported itself as the Eastern Roman Empire.
Formation of independent Byzantium
The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, numerous barbaric, mostly German tribes penetrated into the Roman territory on the Danube and Reine. If one were small groups of immigrants, which attracted the security and wealth of the empire, others made raids and squirrelly settled on its territory. Taking advantage of the weakness of Rome, the Germans switched from raids to the seizure of land, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was overthrown. The position in the East was also heavy, especially after in 378 the posges won in the famous battle of Adrianopol in which the emperor Valent was killed and the goths under the leadership of Alarich devastated all Greece. But soon, Alarich went to the West - to Spain and Gallia, where the goths founded their state, and the danger from their side for Byzantium was minimized. In 441, Gunna came to change the goths. Attila he started the war several times, and only paying a large Dani managed to prevent his further attacks. In the second half of the 7th century, the danger came from the side of the sharp - theodorich ruined Macedonia, threatened by Constantinople, but he went to the West, won Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome.
Highly destabilized the situation in the country and numerous Christian heresy - Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophizite. While in the west of the Pope, starting with the Lion of the Great (440-462), they argued the papal monarchy, in the east of the Patriarchs Alexandria, especially Kirill (422-444) and diosk (444-451), tried to install the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these, the old national deficiency and separatist trends came to the surface; Thus, political interests and goals and goals with religious conflict.
Since 502, Persians resumed their onslaught in the East, Slavs and Avars began raids south from the Danube. Internal universities reached the extreme limits, in the capital there was a tense struggle of the parties "green" and "blue" (according to the colors of the chariots). Finally, the solid memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need for the unity of the Roman world, indifferently paid the mind to the West. To get out of this state of instability, I needed powerful handClear policy with accurate and defined plans. Such a policy was conducted by Justinian I.
VI century. Emperor Justinian
The Byzantine Empire during the heyday of about 550 g. In 518, after the death of Emperor Anastasia, the head of the Guard Justin came to the throne - a leaving from the Macedonian peasants. The government would be very difficult for this illiterate old man if he had no nephew of Justinian. From the very beginning of the Board of Justin, Vustinian was in fact, Justinian was also a native of Macedonia, who received an excellent education and possessed magnificent abilities.
In 527, having received the full authority, Justinian began to fulfill his ideas to restore the empire and strengthening the power of a single emperor. He achieved the Union with the Orthodox Church. Under Justinian, hereticians were forced to move in Orthodoxy under threat of deprivation of civil rights and even the death penalty.
Until 532, he was engaged in suppressing speeches in the capital and reflection of the Natisa of Persians, but soon the main direction of politics moved to the West. The barbaric kingdoms weakened over the past salts, the residents called for the restoration of the empire, finally even the Kings of the Germans themselves recognized the legality of the claims of Byzantium. In 533, the army, under the leadership of Vandalov, hit the vandal state in North Africa. The next goal was Italy - a hard war with the Ostrodsky kingdom lasted 20 years and ended with the victory.
Communted in the Kingdom of Visigoths in 554, Justinian won the southern part of Spain. As a result, the territory of the empire has increased almost twice. But these successes demanded too much consumption of forces than the Persians, Slavs and Avars used, which, although they did not gain significant territories, but exposed to many lands in the east of the empire.
Byzantine Empire for 550, the Byzantine diplomacy also sought to ensure the prestige and influence of the empire in the entire external world. Thanks to the destructive distribution of mercies and money and a skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the Empire, she led to the Byzantine dominion, barbaric peoples who wandered at the borders of the state. One of the main ways to include in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries that spread Christianity from the Black Sea coast to the Abyar Oasis and Oasis was one of characteristic features Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.
Imp. Justinian I and Delicaria (left). Mosaic. Ravenna, the Church of St. Vitaly, in addition to military expansion, the other most important task of Justinian was administrative and financial reforms. The Economy of the Empire was in a serious crisis, the management is struck by corruption. In order to reorganize the management of Justinian, a codification of legislation and a number of reforms were carried out, which, although they did not solve the problem drastically, but undoubtedly had positive consequences. Construction began throughout the empire - the largest in scale from the times of the Golden Age of Antonins. The new flourishing worried culture.
VI-VII century
However, the greatness was bought by an expensive price - the economy was undermined by wars, the population reached, and the successors of Justinian (Justin II (565-578), II (578-582), Mauritius (582-602)) were forced to focus on defense and transfer Direction of politics to the East. The conquest of Justinian turned out to be fragile - at the end of the VI-VII centuries. Byzantium lost all the conquered areas in the West (with the exception of southern Italy).
While the invasion of Langobards took away half of Italy from Byzantium, in 591 during the war with the Persia, Armenia was conquered, the opposition to the Slavs continued. But at the beginning of the next, the VII century Persians resumed the fighting and achieved significant success due to numerous stems in the Empire. In 610, the son of the Carthaginian Exarch Irakli Ovrm's Emperor Foku and founded a new dynasty, which turned out to be able to withstand the dangers of a threatening state. It was one of the most difficult periods in the history of Byzantium - Persians won Egypt and threatened Constantinople, Avaras, Slavs and Langobard attacked borders from all sides. Heraclius won a number of victories over the Persians, suffered a war on their territory, after which the death of Shah Hoshrov II and a number of uprisings forced them to abandon all the conquests and conclude peace. But the strongest exhaustion of both parties in this war has prepared a favorable soil for Arab conquest.
In 634, Khalif Omar invaded Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Syria, Palestine, Upper Mesopotamia were lost over the next 40 years, and often the population of these areas, exhausted by wars, believed Arabs, which at first significantly reduced taxes, their liberators . The Arabs created the fleet and even besieged Constantinople. But the new emperor, Konstantin IV Runet (668-685), reflected their onslaught. Despite the five-year siege of Constantinople (673-678) from Sushi and from the sea, the Arabs could not capture it. The Greek Fleet, which was a recent invention of "Greek fire" provided superiority, forced Muslim squadrons for retreat and defeated the defeat in the waters of Silleum. On land, the khaliphat troops were broken in Asia.
From this crisis, the empire came out more combined and monolithic, national composition It became more homogeneous, religious differences were mainly gone into the past, because the monophimitis and the Arianism had the main distribution in Egypt and North Africa lost. By the end of the VII century, the territory of Byzantium was no more than a third of the Power of Justinian. The kernel was the land inhabited by the Greeks or Hellenized tribes who spoke in Greek. At the same time, the mass settlement of the Balkan Peninsula by Slavic tribes began. In the VII century, they settled at a significant territory in Mesia, Frakia, Macedonia, Dalmatia, Istria, part of Greece and even were resettled in Maly Asia), while maintaining their language, life, culture. There were changes in the ethnic composition of the population in the eastern part of Malaya Asia: the settlements of Persians, Syrians, Arabs appeared.
In the VII century, significant reforms were carried out in the management - instead of the dioceses and the Exarchates, the empire was divided into fems subordinate to stratags. The new national composition of the state led to the fact that Greek has become official, even the title of Emperor began to sound in Greek - Vasilev. In the administration, antique Latin titles or disappear, or they are eliminated, and their place is occupied by new names - logo, strategies, foracies, dringaria. In the army, where Asian and Armenian elements dominate, the Greek language becomes the language of orders.
VIII century
At the beginning of the 7th century, temporary stabilization was replaced by a series of crises - war with Bulgarians, Arabs, continuous uprisings. Lev Isavre, who ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Lion III and founded the Isaveri dynasty (717-867), managed to stop the disassembly of the state and inflicted the decisive defeat of the Arabs.
After half a century, the first two Isaurs made an empire rich and blooming, despite the plague, devastated it in 747, the riots were caused by icon-blooded. The religious policy of Isavria emperors was both political. Many at the beginning of the 7th century were dissatisfied with an excess of superstition and especially the place that it occupied the worship of icons, faith in their miraculous properties, connection with them of human actions and interests; Many were disturbed by the evil, as it seemed to them, thus hurt religion. At the same time, the emperors sought to limit the growing power of the Church. The policy of iconoclapses led to discords and stem, at the same time amazed split in relations with the Roman Church. The restoration of iconotability occurred only at the end of the 7th century, thanks to Empress Irina - the first woman-Empress, but at the beginning of the IX century the policy of iconoclasts was continued.
IX-XI century
In 800, Karl the Great announced the restoration of the Western Roman Empire, which for Byzantium became sensitive humiliation. At the same time, the Baghdad Khalifat strengthened his onslaught in the east.
The emperor Lvom v Armenian (813-820) and the two emperors of the Frigian dynasty - Mikhail II (820-829) and Ferofil (829-842) - the policy of iconocructures was resumed. Again for whole thirty years, the empire was in power stem. Treaty of 812, who admitted to Karl's great title of emperor, meant serious territorial losses in Italy, where Byzantia retained only Venice and land in the south of the peninsula.
War with Arabs, resumed in 804, led to two serious defeats: to seize the island of Crete Muslim pirates (826), which began to almost immediately empty the Eastern Mediterranean, and to the conquest of Sicily North African Arabs (827), which in 831 seized the city Palermo. Especially Grozny was the danger from Bulgar, since Khan Krum expanded the limits of his empire from Gem to Carpathians. Nikifor tried to break it, invading Bulgaria, but on the way back was defeated and died (811), and Bulgarians, again capturing Adrianopol, appeared at the walls of Constantinople (813). Only the victory of Leo V during the Mesmenvriya (813) saved the empire.
The period of the scenes ended in 867 by the coming to power of the Macedonian dynasty. Vasilya I Macedonian (867-886), Roman I Lacipin (919-944), Nikifor II Fock (963-969), John Tsimischius (969-976), Vasily II (976-1025) - Emperors and usurpers - provided Byzantium 150 years of prosperity and power. Bulgaria, Crete, South Italy was conquered, successful military campaigns against Arabs deep into Syria were committed. The boundaries of the empire expanded to Euphrates and Tiger, Armenia and Iberia entered the sphere of the Byzantine influence, John Tsimischi reached Jerusalem.
In the IX-XI century, a relationship with Kyiv Rusy acquired great importance for Byzantium. After the siege of Constantinople, the Kiev Prince Oleg (907) of Byzantium was forced to conclude a trade agreement with Russia, who contributed to the development of trafficking along a large path from "Varyag to Greeks". At the end of the X century, Byzantium fought with the Kiev Prince Svyatoslav) for Bulgaria and won. Under Kiev Prince Vladimir, Svyatoslavovich between Byzantia and Russia was a union. Vasily II gave his sister Anna Marry Vladimir. At the end of the X century, Christianity across the Orthodox rite from Byzantia.
In 1019, won Bulgaria, Armenia and Iberia, Vasily II celebrated the greatest strengthening of the empire from Arab conquests. Finished the picture the brilliant state of finance and the flowering of culture.
Byzantium in 1000, however, the first signs of weakness began to appear at the same time, which was expressed in strengthening feudal fragmentation. Knowing who controlled huge territories and resources often successfully opposed itself to the central government. The decline began after the death of Vasily II, when he was brother Konstantine VIII (1025-1028) and in the daughters of the latter - first with the zoe and its three consistently changed each other - novel III (1028-1034), Mikhail IV (1034-1041), Konstantin Monomakh (1042-1054), with which she separated the throne (Zoya died in 1050), and then at the farodore (1054-1056). The weakening manifested itself even sharply on concreteen by the Board of the Macedonian dynasty.
As a result of a military coup on the throne, Isaac I Komnet rose (1057-1059); After his renunciation, Emperor became Konstantin X of the Duka (1059-1067). Then Roman IV Diogen (1067-1071) came to power (1067-1071), which Mikhail VII Owl (1071-1078); As a result of the new Crown's uprising, Nikifor Wotaniat went to Nikiforu (1078-1081). During these short boards, anarchy increased, the internal and external crisis, from which the empire suffered, was becoming more severe. Italy was lost by the middle of the XI century near Namannov, but the main danger came from the east - in 1071 Roman IV Diogen suffered a defeat from the Turks-Seljuk Under Manazkert (Armenia), and this was not able to recover from this defeat of Byzantium. In 1054, a formal gap between Christian churches was held, which increased to the edge of the stretched relationship with the West and predetermined events 1204 (capture of the Crusaders of Constantinople and the collapse of the country), and the rebellion of the feudalists undermined the last forces of the country.
In 1081, the comnin dynasty entered the throne (1081-1204) - representatives of feudal aristocracy. Turks remained in Iconi (Konian Sultanate), in the Balkans with the help of Hungary, the Slavic peoples created almost independent states; Finally, the West was also a serious danger of Byzantium, as from the conciliatory aspirations, ambitious political plans generated by the first cross campaign, and the economic claims of Venice.
XII-XIII century
When commission, a major role in the Byzantine army began to play heavy-equipped cavalry (cataphracts) and hired troops from the ingenians. The strengthening of the state and the army allowed the comnins to repel the offensive of Normanov to the Balkans, to win against the Selzhuks a significant part of Malaya Asia, to establish sovereignty over Antioch. Manuel I forced Hungary to recognize the sovereignty of Byzantium (1164) and approved his power in Serbia. But in general, the situation continued to remain hard. The behavior of Venice was especially dangerous - the former purely Greek city became an opponent and the enemy of the empire, created a strong competition of her trade. In 1176, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks in the Miriochefalon. At all borders of Byzantium, it was forced to go to defense.
The policy of Byzantium in the Crusaders was to bind to their leaders with vassal bonds and return with their help territories in the East, but it did not bring much success. Relations with crusaders constantly worsened. Like many of their predecessors, Komnin dreamed of restoring their power over Rome, or with the help of power or by the Union with the papacy, and destroy the Western Empire, the fact of which was always presented to them by the usurpation of their rights.
Especially tried to carry out these dreams Manuel I. It seemed that Manuel melted the empire incomparable fame around the world and made Constantinople the Center for European Policy; But when he died in 1180, Byzantia was ruined and hated by Latinians, ready to attack her at any time. At the same time, a serious internal crisis was called in the country. After the death of Manuel I, a popular uprising broke out in Constantinople (1181), caused by the dissatisfaction with the government's policies, which contributed to the Italian merchants, as well as the Western European knights who came to the service to the emperors. The country experienced a deep economic crisis: feudal fragmentation, the rulers of the provinces were actually independent of the central authorities, fell into the decline of the city, weakened the army and the fleet. The disassembly of the Empire began. In 1187, Bulgaria disappeared; In 1190, Byzantium was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia. When, in 1192, Venice's guy became Enrico Dandolo, the thought arose that best tool As to meet the accumulated hatred of Latinians, and to ensure the interests of Venice in the East would be the conquest of the Byzantine Empire. The hostility of the Dad, the harassment of Venice, the shame of the entire Latin world - all this together predetermined the fact that the fourth crusade (1202-1204) turned instead of Palestine against Constantinople. The exhausted, weakened by the onslaught of Slavic states, the Byzantium turned out to be unable to resist the Crusaders.
In 1204, the army of the Crusaders captured Constantinople. Byzantiums broke up into a number of states - the Latin Empire and the Ahasey principality, created in the territories captured by the Crusaders, and the Nicene, Trapezund and Epirus Empires - the remaining controlled Greeks. Latinians suppressed Greek culture in Byzantium, the dominance of Italian merchants prevented the revival of Byzantine cities.
The Byzantine Empire In the first half of the XIII century, the position of the Latin Empire was very shard - the hatred of the Greeks and the attacks of Bulgarians have greatly relaxed it, so in 1261, the emperor of the Nicene Empire, Mikhail Paleolog, with the support of the Greek population of the Latin Empire. Restored by Constantinople Byzantine Empire. In 1337, an epirus joined her. But the Ahasey Principality is the only viable formation of the Crusaders in Greece - existed to the conquests of Ottoman Turks, as well as the Trapezund Empire. It was no longer possible to restore the Byzantine Empire for its purposes. Mikhail VIII (1261-1282) tried to implement this, and although he could not fully implement his aspirations, but his efforts, practical dating and the flexible mind make it the last significant emperor of Byzantium.
In the face of the external danger threatening the empire, it was necessary that she maintained unity, calm and strength. The era of Paleologists, on the contrary, was full of uprisings and civil mind. In Europe, the most dangerous opponents of Byzantium were Serbs. In the successors of Stefan, Nept - Urosha and (1243-1276), Dragutina (1276-1282), Milututina (1282-1321) - Serbia so expanded its territory at the expense of Bulgaria and Byzantines, which became the most significant state in the Balkan Peninsula.
XIV-XV century
Ottoman's pressure was constantly intensified led by three major military leaders - ERROGROL, Osman (1289-1326) and Urkhan (1326-1359). Despite some successful attempts at Andronicus II stop them, in 1326 Bursa fell before Ottomans, which turned it into their capital. Then Nikeya was taken (1329), for her - Niccoming (1337); In 1338, the Turks reached Bosphor and soon crossed him at the invitation of the Byzantines themselves, persistently achieved their union for help in the inner disarray. This circumstance led to the fact that the emperors had to seek help at the event. John V (1369) and then Manuil II (1417) had to resume negotiations with Rome, and John VIII to prevent Turkish danger, made a desperate attempt - the emperor personally appeared in Italy (1437) and on the Florentine Cathedral signed with Evgeny IV. I thought the end of the division of churches (1439). But the simple population did not accept Catholicism, and these attempts of reconciliation only aggravated the inner discord.
Finally, the conquest of Ottomans began to threaten the very existence of the country. Murad I (1359-1389) won Frace (1361), which John V Paleologist was forced to admit in 1363, then he captured Filippopol, and soon Adrianopol, where he had transferred his capital (1365). Constantinople, isolated, surrounded, sliced \u200b\u200bfrom the rest of the regions, expected for his walls of a deadly blow that seemed inevitable. Meanwhile, Osmans completed the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula. At Marita, they broke the southern Serbs and Bulgarians (1371); They founded their colonies in Macedonia and began to threaten thessalonians (1374); They invaded Albania (1386), broke the Serbian empire and after the battle on the Kosovo field turned Bulgaria to Turkish Pashalyk (1393). John V Paleologist was forced to recognize himself with Vassal Sultan, pay him a tribute to him and supply him the contingents of troops to capture Philadelphia (1391) - the last unfold, which was still owned by Byzantium in Malaya Asia.
The territory of the Byzantine Empire in 1400 Bayazid (1389-1402) acted on the Byzantine Empire even more energetic. He blocked the capital from all sides (1391-1395), and when the western attempt to save Byzantium in the battle of Nikopol (1396) failed, he tried to assign Konstantinople (1397) and at the same time invaded the sea. The invasion of the Mongols and the crushing defeat, inflicted by Timur Turks under Angore (1402), gave the empire for another twenty years of delay. But in 1421 Murad II (1421-1451) resumed an offensive. He attacked, albeit unsuccessfully, Constantinople, who vigorously resisted (1422); captured thesalonics (1430), bought in 1423 venetians at the Byzantines; One of his commander penetrated in the sea (1423); He himself successfully acted in Bosnia and Albania and forced the Lord Valahia to pay tribute.
The Byzantine Empire, brought to despair, has now, in addition to Constantinople and the neighboring region to Dercone and Selimvria, only a few separate areas scattered along the coast: Anchila, Mesmenuria, Athos and Peloponnese, almost completely disgusted by Latinan, became the center of the Greek nation. Despite the heroic efforts of Janos Hunyadi, who in 1443 broke the Turks at the Yalovac, despite the resistance of Skanderbeg in Albania, the Turks stubbornly pursued their goals. In 1444, in Battle, Varna turned his defeat, the last serious attempt to the Eastern Christians to confront the Turks. Athenian Duchy obeyed them, the pround of the sea, conquered by the Turks in 1446, was forced to recognize himself with a denanist; In the second battle on the Kosovo field (1448), Janos Hunyadi suffered defeat. Only Constantinople remained - an impregnable citadel, which embodied the whole empire. But for him was approaching the end. Mehmed II, entering the throne (1451), firmly put the intention to master them. On April 5, 1453 Turks began the siege of Constantinople.
Konstantin XI on the walls of Constantinople Even earlier, Sultan built a strength of Rumili Rumelichisar on the Bosphorus, which cut the communications between Constantinople and the Black Sea, and at the same time sent an expedition to the sea to prevent Greek despoty Mr. to help the capital. Against the colossal Turkish army, which consisted of about 80 thousand people, the emperor Konstantin Dragash was able to expose only 9 thousand soldiers, of which foreigners were about half; The population has once a huge city at that time amounted to only about 30 thousand people. However, despite the power of the Turkish artillery, the first attack was repulsed (April 18).
Mehmed II managed to spend his fleet to the Bay of the Golden Horn and thus jeopardize another portion of fortifications. However, the assault on May 7 failed. But in the city shaft on the approaches to the gate of St. The novel was broken. On the night of May 28, the last attack began on May 29, 1453. Double Turks were repulsed; Then Mehmed threw on the assault Jan. At the same time, Guesec Justiniani Longo, who was with the emperor of the soul of defense, got a serious injury and left the system at the same time his spirit broke and began to talk about the inevitability of defeat. Such statements from the mouth of previously one of the most tary warriors and the disappearance of the leader significantly weakened the Genois and other warriors. The emperor continued to fully fight, but part of the enemy troops, mastering the underground move from the fortress - the so-called Xustaorta, attacked the defenders from the rear. It was the end. Konstantin Dragash died in battle. Turks captured the city. In the captured Constantinople, robberies and murders began; More than half of the inhabitants were captured.
On May 30, 1453, at eight o'clock in the morning, Mehmed II solemnly joined the capital and ordered to remake the Central Cathedral of the city - the Cathedral of Saint Sophia in the mosque. The last remnants of the once great empire - trapesund and seas - fell under Turkish dominion over the next few decades.
Historical heritage

Byzantium was the only sustainable education in Europe over the Middle Ages. Its armed and diplomatic strength guaranteed Europe to protect against Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turk, and for Time, Ottomans. Rus played a similar role in the times of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Only in our time the meaning of Byzantium in the development of modern civilization was recognized.
Economy

Over the centuries, the Byzantine economy was the most advanced in Europe. The Byzantine coin - solid was stable for 700 years, only after 1204 was gradually replaced by Venetian dukat. The wealth of the empire was incomparable with any state in Europe, and Constantinople throughout the centuries was one of the largest and richest cities in the world. The fact that the empire has been the most developed lands of that time - Greece, Small Asia, Egypt, as well as passing through its territory of many trade routes - between the Chinese and Persian East and Western Europe (Great Silk Road), between Northern Scandinavia and Rus and Africa in the south (path "from Varyag in Greeks"). Byzantium held a trade advantage until 13-14 centuries, until Venice was intercepted. The tragic influence on the economy of the Empire caused permanent wars, and especially the capture of Konstantinople with crusaders in 1204, after which Byzantium no longer recovered.
Science and Law
Byzantium played an important role in the accumulation and transfer of classical knowledge to the Arab world and Europe of the Renaissance. Her rich historical tradition retained the ancient knowledge, became a bridge between the ancient times and the Middle Ages.
A significant event was to compile the Code of Justinian, which became the result of the development of Roman law. The laws were constantly improved. The foundations of the appellate courts, the marine law system laid. This Byzantine law contributed to the evolution of legal systems even more than its direct predecessor - Roman law.
Religion
Religious institutions in the Byzantine state had a significant impact on society, culture and politics. The emperor often managed to send the highest clergy in the direction of their own interests, so we can talk about the service of religion to the state.
In 867, there was a gap between the Konstantinople Patriarch Fothe and the Pope of the Roman Nikolai. The split of Christianity in Orthodoxy and Catholicism finally took shape in 1054, when the Higher Constantinople and Roman hierarchs mutually cursed each other.
From Byzantium, Christianity spread to the Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe. Rus was also baptized according to the Orthodox Byzantine rite, which strengthened the cultural relations of our ancestors with the Byzantium number and with the whole Christian world as a whole.
Culture, architecture and literature
Main article: Culture of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine culture and literature was concentrated around religion. Icon took a central place in artistic creativity. The architecture made focus on the dome, arches, cross-square plan for building religious structures. Church interiors were decorated with mosaic and painting, depicting saints and biblical plots. The formal elements of the Byzantine architecture led to a significant impact on the Ottoman architecture. Byzantine architecture and architectural decorations also developed in medieval and early modern Ukrainian architecture. More generally, the Byzantine artistic traditions, in particular, the iconography affected the art of Orthodox societies in Southeast Europe, Russia and the Middle East.
Imp. Nikifor III (1078-1081) The literature was characterized by the lack of strict differentiation between individual industries: for Byzantium, a typical figure of a scientist who writes for a wide variety of knowledge topics - from mathematics to theology and fiction (John Damaskin, 8th century; Mikhail Psel, 11th century ; Nikifor VULLIMID, 13th century; Feodor Metohit, 14th century). Religious hymns and treatises were widely distributed. People's oral creativity for lack of entries in most cases did not reach us.
The Music of Byzantium is represented by Christian liturgical chants, with the relation of which the collective term is usually used - hymns. In the work of immigrants from Syria St. Roman Sladkospivzia, St. Andrei Cretsky, as well as St. John Damaskina is formed by a system of an ax, which was based on the musical accompaniment of Christian worship services. Liturgic chants with insidible notation were recorded.
In the Byzantine historiography, many outstanding personalities - Prokop Caesarian, Agaphi Mirnesey, John Malala, Feofan Confessor, Georgy Amita, Mikhail Psla, Mikhail Attaliat, Anna Comnina, John Kinnam, Nikita Honiatr. The significant influence of science is observed at the Chronicles of Russia.
From Western European medieval culture, the Byzantine culture was distinguished:

Higher (up to 12th century) level of material production;
sustainable preservation of antique traditions in education, science, literature of creativity, visual art, everyday life;
individualism (underdeveloped public principles; faith in the possibility of individual salvation, while the Western Church put salvation dependence on the sacraments, that is, from the shares of the church; individualistic, not a hierarchical interpretation of property), which was not combined with freedom (Byzantic felt in direct dependence from the higher forces - God and the emperor);
the cult of the emperor as a sacral figure (earthly deity), which required worship in the form of special clothing ceremonies, appeals, etc.;
The unification of scientific and artistic creativity, which was facilitated by the bureaucratic centralization of power.

Political system
From the Roman Empire of Byzantium inherited the monarchical system of government with the emperor headed. For a long time, the former system of state and financial management remained. But from the end of the VI century, significant changes begin. Reforms are mainly connected with defense (administrative division on the fems instead of exarch attacks) and mainly the Greek culture of the country (the introduction of the posts of the logo, Strategist, Drungary, etc.). Since the X century, feudal principles of management are widely distributed, this process led to an approval on the throne of representatives of feudal aristocracy. Until the very end of the empire, numerous uprisings and the struggle for the imperial throne did not stop.
Army

The Army of Byzantium was inherited from the Roman Empire. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, it was mainly hired and differed quite low combat capacity. But in the details of the management system and supply system, works on strategy and tactics are published, a variety of "technical" funds are widely applied. In contrast to the old Roman army, the value of the fleet is growing greatly (in which the invention of Greek fire provides domination of the sea), cavalry (severe cavalry is penetrated from Sasanids) and small arms.
The transition to the feymal system of a set of troops was provided by the country of 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition dependent on the feudalists led to a gradual decrease in the quality of troops. The recovery system was changed to Western - that is, a typical feudal one, when to know was obliged to supply military contingents for the right to ownership of the Earth.
In the future, the army and the fleet come into increasingly decay, and at the very end are mainly hired formations. In 1453, Constantinople was able to expose only a 5,000th army (and 4 thousand mercenaries.
Diplomacy

Byzantia skillfully used diplomacy in conflicts with neighboring states and peoples. So, in the threat from Bulgaria, agreements with Russia were concluded, with the increased influence of Russia in the Danube region, Pechenegs were put forward in counterweights. Byzantine diplomats also intervened in the internal affairs of other states. In 1282, Mikhail VIII supported an uprising in Sicily against the Anzhuy dynasty. The emperors supported contenders for the throne in other states, if they guaranteed peace and cooperation with Constantinople.
See also

Byzantine emperors
Chronology of the Byzantine Empire

An end came. But at the beginning of the IV century. The center of Power moved to more relaxed and rich oriental, Balkan and low-depth, provinces. Soon, Constantinople became the capital, founded by Emperor Konstantin on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. True, and in the West left their emperors - the management of the empire was divided. But the seniors were considered to be the state trucks of Constantinople. In V c. Eastern, or Byzantine, as they spoke in the West, the empire resulted under the strike of the barbarians. Moreover, in the VI century. Her rules won many lands busy by Germanians and held their two centuries. Then they were the Roman emperors not only on the title, but also in essence. Having lost to the IX century. significant part of Western possessions, Byzantine Empire Nevertheless, continued to live and develop. She existed up to 1453., When the last stronghold of her power is Konstantinople fell under the head of the Turks. All this time, the empire remained in the eyes of subjects by the legal successor. Her residents called themselves romaineThat in Greater means "Romans", although the main part of the population was the Greeks.

The geographical location of Byzantium, spreading his possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes I stretched the power and on the field of Africa, made this empire as if the link between East and the West. A constant split between the Eastern and Western world became the historical diet of the Byzantine Empire. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imposed a print on social life, statehood, religious philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went his own historical path, in many ways other than the fate of the countries of both the east and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

Map of the Byzantine Empire

History of the Byzantine Empire

The culture of the Byzantine Empire was created by many nations. In the first centuries, the existence of Romary Power under the authority of its emperors was all the eastern provinces of Rome: Balkan Peninsula, Small Asia, South Crimea, Western Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Northeast Libya. The creators of the new cultural unity were, the Romans, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptian Copds and settlers in the borders of the Varvara Empire.

The most powerful cultural reservoir in this cultural diversity was an antique heritage. Long before the advent of the Byzantine Empire, thanks to Alexander Macedon's campaigns, all the peoples of the Middle East were subjected to a powerful unifying effects of ancient Greek, Hellenic, culture. This process was called Hellenization. Greek traditions and migrants from the West adopted. So the culture of the updated empire developed as a continuation of the main culture of ancient Greek. Greek language already in the VII century. Really dominated in the written and oral speech Romeyev (Romans).

The East, unlike the West, did not happen to experience the rules of barbaric raids. Therefore, there was no terrible cultural decline. Most of the ancient Greco-Roman cities continued to exist in the Byzantine world. In the first centuries of the new era, they maintained the former appearance and the device. As in Eldead, the heart of the city-remained Agora is an extensive area where popular assets were held. Now, however, the people became increasingly going on the racetrack - the place of representations and races, declaring decrees and public executions. The city was decorated with fountains and statues, magnificent houses of local knowledge. Public buildings. In the capital - Constantinople - monumental palaces of emperors were erected by the best masters. The most famous of the early - the Big Imperial Palace of Justinian I, the famous Winner of the Germans, which was ruled in 527-565, was erected over the Marmara's Sea. The appearance and decoration of the metropolitan palaces reminded the times of the ancient Greek-Macedonian Vladyk of the Middle East. But the Byzantines used the Roman city-planning experience, in particular the water supply system and the baths (terms).

Most of the major cities of antiquity remained the centers of trade, crafts, science, literature and art. Such were Athens and Corinth in the Balkans, Ephesus and Nikeya in Malaya Asia, Antioch, Jerusalem and Berit (Beirut) in Siro-Palestines, Alexandria in ancient Egypt.

Wheel of many cities of the West He led to the displacement of trade routes to the East. At the same time, the invasions and captures of the barbarians made the land roads unsafe. The law and order remained only in the possessions of Constantinople emperors. Therefore, "dark", filled with centuries (V- VIII centuries) became sometimes the heyday of Byzantine ports. They served and transshipment points for military units sent to numerous wars and parking lots of the strongest in Europe of the Byzantine Fleet. But the main sense and the source of their existence was maritime trade. Romeev's trade ties extended from India to Britain.

Antique crafts continued to develop in the cities. Many products of the Earnevianizan masters are real works of art. Masterpieces of Romary Jewelers are made of precious metals and stones, from stained glass and ivory - caused admiration in the countries of the Middle East and barbaric Europe. Germans, Slavs, Gunns adopted the skill of Romeev, imitated them in their own creations.

Coins in the Byzantine Empire

In the whole of Europe, for a long time only a romary coin appeared. Constantinople's emperors continued to be chased Roman money, bringing only minor changes in their appearance. The right of Roman emperors to the authorities was not subject to even the lute enemies, and the only mint in Europe was confirmed. The first in the West dared to start the frank king's own coin in the second half of the VI century. However, and then the barbarians only imitated a Romainy pattern.

Heritage of the Roman Empire

Anotherly noticeable Roman heritage of Byzantium is traced in the state management system. Political figures and philosophers of Byzantium were not tired of repeating that Constantinople was a new Rome that they themselves - Roma, and their powers - the only Empire stored by God. The branched apparatus of the central government, the tax system, the legal doctrine of the inviolability of the imperial uniformly preserved in it without fundamental changes.

The everyday life of the emperor, a worship of him been inherited from the traditions of the Roman Empire. In the Late Rime period, even before the Byzantine era, the palace rituals included many elements of the eastern despoty. Vasilev, the emperor, appeared before the people only, accompanied by a brilliant suite and impressive armed guard, following in a strictly defined order. In front of Vasilevs, NIC extended, during the throne speech it was closed with special curtains, the right of the right to sit in his presence. Only the highest ranks of the empire were allowed to his meal. The reception of foreign ambassadors, whom the Byzantines tried to hit the magnitude of the emperor's power.

Central administration was concentrated in several departments-secrets: the head of the logo (ruler) of the Genicon - the main tax institution, the department of the military office, the office of mail and external relations, the Department of Property Management of the Imperial Family, etc. In addition to the staff of officials in the capital, each agency had officials sent with temporary orders in the province. There were also palace secrets that manage directly serviced the royal courtyard institutions: food, wardrobe, stable, repair.

Byzantium preserved the Roman law and the foundations of Roman proceedings. The development of the Roman theory of law was completed in the Byzantine era, the final design of such theoretical concepts of jurisprudence, as the right, law, custom, was clarified by the difference between private and public right, the basis of regulation was determined international relations, the norms of criminal law and process.

The heritage of the Roman Empire was a clear tax system. A free citizen or a peasant paid taxes and duties from all kinds of their property and from any kind of employment. He paid for the possession of the land, and for the garden in the city, and for Moula or sheep in Khlev, and for the room, surrendered by V., and for the workshop, and for the shop, and for the ship, and for the boat. Almost no goods on the market moved from hand to hand, bypassing the alert Oko officials.

Warfare

Preserved Byzantium and the Roman art of the reference war. In the empire, it was carefully kept, rewriting and studied ancient strategic - treatises about military art.

Periodically, the authorities reformed the army, partly due to the emergence of new enemies, partly for its compliance with the possibilities and needs of the state itself. The basis of the Byzantine troops became cavalry. Its amount in the composition of the army hesitated from 20% in the late clock time to more than one third in the x century. A minor part, but very combatable steel of kataphractia - heavy cavalry.

Military fleet Byzantium was also direct inheritance of Rome. The following facts speak his strength. In the middle of the VII century. Emperor Konstantin V was able to send in the mouth of the Danube for conducting hostilities against Bulgarian 500 vessels, and in 766 - even over 2 thousand. The largest ships (Dromons) with three rows of fun were taken aboard to 100-150 soldiers and about the same Rowers.

Innovation on the fleet became "Greek fire" - a mixture of oil, combustible oils, asphalt of sulfur, - invented in VII century. And inspired horror on enemies. It was thrown out of the siphones arranged in the form of bronze monsters with loose pastes. Siphons could be rotated in different directions. The ejected fluid is self-replicated and burned even on the water. It is with the help of "Greek fire" the Byzantines beat two Arab invasions - in 673 and 718.

A military construction was perfectly developed in the Byzantine Empire, based on a rich engineering tradition. Byzantine engineers - the builders of fortresses were famous far outside the country, even in distant Khazaria, where the fortress was erected by their plans

Seaside major cities besides the walls were protected by underwater moles and massive chains, blocking the entrance of the enemy fleet to the bay. Such chains were closed by the Golden Horn in Constantinople and the Bay of the Dessaloniki.

For the defense and siege of the fortresses, the Byzantines used various engineering facilities (pivans and frequencies, subpopters and mounds) and all sorts of guns. The Byzantine documents mentions the tarana, moving towers with overheaded bedtops, chanetable ballists, hooks for the capture and destruction of siege devices of the enemy, boilers from which boiling resin and melted lead poured on the heads of the precipitated.