The law of conservation and conversion of energy (the first beginning of the thermodynamics) in principle does not prohibit such a transition, if only the amount of energy remained in the same volume. But in reality, this never happens. This one is one-sidedness, one-time redistribution of energy in closed systems and emphasizes the second beginning.

To reflect this process, a new concept was introduced into thermodynamics - entropy. Under entropy began to understand measure the disorder of the system. A more accurate wording of the second start of thermodynamics took this kind: "With spontaneous processes in systems that have permanent energy, entropy always increases."

The physical meaning of increasing entropy is reduced to the fact that consisting of a certain set of particles isolated (with constant energy) The system tends to switch to a state with the smallest order of the movement of particles. This is the most simple state of the system, or the state of thermodynamic equilibrium, in which the movement of particles is chaotic. Maximum entropy means a complete thermodynamic equilibrium, which is equivalent to complete chaos.

The total result is sufficiently sad: the irreversible orientation of the energy conversion processes in isolated systems sooner or later will lead to the conversion of all types of energy into thermal, which dispels, i.e. On average, evenly distributes between all the elements of the system, which will mean thermodynamic equilibrium or full chaos.If our universe is closed, she is waiting for such an unenviable fate. From Chaos, as the ancient Greeks argued, she was born, in Chaos, as classical thermodynamics assumes, and returns.

True, really, a curious question: if the Universe evolves only to chaos, how could she arise and sorgrate to the current orderly state? However, the classic thermodynamics was asked by this issue, because it was formed in the era, when the non-stationary nature of the universe was not even discussed. At this time, Darwinian theory of evolution was the only silent reproach of thermodynamics. Indeed, the estimated process of the development of the plant and the animal world was characterized by its continuous complication, the increase in the height of the organization and order. For some reason, the wild nature sought away from thermodynamic equilibrium and chaos. Such an obvious "non-tax" of the laws of development of inanimate and wildlife at least surprised.

Surprise this has repeatedly increased after replacing the model of the stationary universe on the model of the developing universe,

in which the increasing complication of the organization of material objects was clearly visible - from elementary and sub-elementary particles in the first moments after Big bang Before the currently observed star and galactic systems. After all, if the principle of increasing entropy is so universal, how could such complex structures arise? Random "indignation" in general the equilibrium universe is no longer explained. It became clear that in order to preserve the consistency of the general picture of the world, it is necessary to postulate the presence of the matter as a whole not only destructive, but also a creative trend. Matter is able to work and against thermodynamic equilibrium, self-organizing and self-kept.

It is worth noting that the postulate of the ability of matter to self-development in philosophy was introduced quite a long time ago. But its need for fundamental natural sciences (physics, chemistry) begins to be realized now. On the wave of these problems and arose synergetic - Theory of self-organization. Its development began several decades ago, and at present it develops in several directions: synergetics (Hacken), nonequilibrium thermodynamics (I. Podzhin) and others without going into details and shades of development of these areas "characterize the overall meaning of the complex they develop Ideas, calling them synergistic (the term G. Hacken).

The main ideological shift produced by synergistic can be expressed as follows:

a) the processes of destruction and creation, degradation and evolution in the universe at least equal fee;

b) the processes of creation (increasing complexity and orderliness) have a single algorithm regardless of the nature of the systems in which they are implemented.

Thus, the synergistic claims to open a certain universal mechanism, with which self-organization is carried out both in alive and in inanimate nature. Under self-organization is understood spontaneous transition of an open non-equilibrium system from less to more complex and ordered forms of organization. From here it follows that the object of synergetics can not be at all

we, but only those that satisfy at least two conditions:

a) they must be open, i.e. exchange substance or energy with the external environment;

b) they should also be substantially non-equilibries, i.e. To be in a state, far from thermodynamic equilibrium.

But these are the most systems known to us. Isolated systems of classical thermodynamics are a certain idealization, in reality such systems are an exception, and not a rule. Most harder from the whole universe as a whole - if you consider it an open system, then what can serve its external environment? Modern physics It believes that such a medium for our real universe is a vacuum.

So, synergetics argues that the development of open and highly non-equilibrium systems occurs through increasing complexity and orderliness. In the development cycle of such a system, two phases are observed:

1. A period of smooth evolutionary development with well-predictable linear changes, summarizing the system to some unstable critical state.

2. Exit from the critical state is simultaneously, a jump and the transition to a new sustainable state with a greater degree of complexity and orderliness.

An important feature: the system transition to a new stable state is ambiguous. Having reached critical parameters a system from a state of strong instability, as it were, "falls" into one of many possible new stable states for it. At this point (it is called the point of bifurcation) the evolutionary path of the system seems to be branched, and which branch of development will be chosen - decides the case! But after "the choice is made", and the system has moved into a qualitatively new sustainable state - there is no refund. This process is irreversible. And hence, by the way, it follows that the development of such systems has a fundamentally unpredictable nature. You can calculate the branch options of the system of the system evolution, but which one of them will be chosen by the case - it is impossible to definitely predict.

The most popular and visual example of the formation of the structures of increasing complexity is a phenomenon known in the hydrodynamics, called Benar cells. When heating the liquid in a circular or rectangular vessel, there is some difference (gradient) of temperatures between the lower and upper layers). If the gradient is small, then heat transfer occurs on the microscopic level and no macroscopic movement occurs. However, when it is reached by some critical value in the liquid, a macroscopic movement appears that forming well-pronounced structures in the form of cylindrical cells. From above, such macro-order looks like a steady cellular structure similar to bee honeycombs.

This is a well-known whole phenomenon from the standpoint of statistical mechanics completely incredible. After all, it suggests that at the time of the formation of Benar cells, billions of fluid molecules as a team begins to behave coordinated, consistently, although before that were in perfect chaotic movement. It seems that every molecule "knows", which is doing all the others, and wants to move in general. (The word "synergistic", by the way, just means "joint action".) Classical statistical laws here clearly do not work here, this is a phenomenon of a different order. After all, even if such "proper" and steadily "cooperative" structure would have formed by chance that it would almost be unbelievable, then she would immediately break off. But it does not disintegrate when maintaining the relevant conditions (the influx of energy from the outside), and is steadily saved. So, the emergence of such structures of increasing complexity is not an accident, but pattern.

The search for similar processes of self-organization in other classes of open nonequilibrium systems seems to promise to be successful: the mechanism of action of the laser, the growth of crystals, the chemical clock (Belousov - Zhabotinsky reaction), the formation of a living organism, the dynamics of populations, the market economy, finally, in which chaotic actions of millions of free Individuals lead to the formation of sustainable and

complex macrostructures are all examples of self-organization of the system of different nature itself.

The synergistic interpretation of this kind of phenomena opens up new opportunities and directions for their study. In a generalized form, the novelty of the synergistic approach can be expressed by the following positions:

Chaos is not only destroyed, but also contemporated, constructive; Development is carried out through instability (chaotic).

The linear nature of the evolution of complex systems, to which classical science is used, not a rule, but rather an exception; The development of most such systems is non-linear. This means that for complex systems there are always several possible ways of evolution.

Development is carried out through a random selection of one of several allowed features of further evolution at bifurcation points. Consequently, the accident is not an annoying misunderstanding, it is built into the mechanism of evolution. And this means that the current path of the evolution of the system can be no better rejected by a random choice.

Synergetics from physical disciplines - thermodynamics, radiophysics. But its ideas are interdisciplinary. They supply the base under the global evolutionary synthesis performed in natural science. Therefore, in synergetics they see one of the most important components of the modern scientific picture of the world.

2.3.3. General contours of the modern natural science painting of the world

The world in which we live consists of different-scale open systems whose development is subject to some general laws. At the same time, he has his own long history, which is known for modern science in general.

Here is what the chronology looks like important events This story is 1:

20 billion years back - big explosion

3 minutes later - the formation of the real base of the universe (photons, neutrino and antineutrino with an admixture of hydrogen nuclei, helium and electrons).

After a few hundred - the appearance of atoms (light elements thousand years tOV).

19-17 billion years ago - the formation of different-scale structures (galaxies).

15 billion years ago - the appearance of first-generation stars, the formation of atoms of heavy elements.

5 billion years ago - the birth of the sun.

4.6 billion years ago - Earth Education.

3.8 billion years ago - the birth of life.

450 million years ago - the appearance of plants.

150 million years ago - the appearance of mammals.

2 million years ago - the beginning of anthropogenesis.

We emphasize that modern science is known not only by the "dates", but in many respects the mechanisms of the evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present day. This is a fantastic result. Moreover, the largest breakthroughs for secrets of the history of the Universe are carried out in the second half of our century:

the concept of a large explosion has been proposed and justified, a quark model of an atom was constructed, the types of fundamental interactions were established and the first theories of their association, etc. were built. We pay attention primarily on the successes of physics and cosmology because it is these fundamental sciences that form the general contours of the scientific picture of the world.

The picture of the world, painted by modern natural science, is unusually complex and simple at the same time. Complicated because it is capable of putting a person who is accustomed to

1 See: Philosophy and the methodology of science. - M.: Aspect Press, 1996. - P. 290.

sunny s common sense Classic scientific ideas. The ideas of the start of time, the corpuscular-wave dualism of quantum objects, the internal structure of the vacuum capable of breeding virtual particles - these and other similar innovations give the current picture of the world a little "crazy" appearance. (However, this is transient: once because the thought of the softenness of the earth also looked completely "crazy".)

But at the same time, this picture is magnificently simple, slim and somewhere even elegant. These qualities give her mainly the leading principles of construction and organization of modern scientific knowledge.

Systemism

Global Evolutionism,

Self-organization

Historicity.

These principles for constructing a scientific picture of the world as a whole correspond to the fundamental patterns of the existence and development of nature itself.

Systemity Indicates the reproduction of the science of the fact that the observed universe appears as the largest of all systems known to us, consisting of a huge set of elements (subsystems) of a different level of complexity and orderliness.

Under the "system" usually understands a certain ordered set of interrelated elements. The system of systemism is detected in the appearance of new properties from the interaction of elements (hydrogen and oxygen atoms, for example, combined into a water molecule, radically change their usual properties). Another important characteristic of the system organization is hierarchy, subordination - consistent inclusion of low-level systems in the system of increasingly high levels.

The system method of combining elements expresses their fundamental unity: thanks to the hierarchical inclusion of systems of different levels in each other, any element of any system is associated with all the elements of all possible systems. (For example: Man - Biosphere - Planet Earth -

solar system - Galaxy and so on.) It is such a fundamentally unified nature demonstrates to us the world. In the same way, the scientific picture of the world is organized accordingly, and creating it natural science. All of its parts are now closely interconnected - now there is almost no "pure" science, everything is permeated and transformed by physics and chemistry.

Global Evolutionism - This is the recognition of the impossibility of the existence of the Universe and all generate less large-scale systems outside the development, evolution. The evolving nature of the Universe also testifies to the principal unity of the world, each component of which is the historical consequence of the global evolutionary process started by a large explosion.

Self-organizing - This is the observed ability of matter to self-compliance and creating more and more ordered structures during evolution. The mechanism of the transition of material systems into a more complex and ordered state, apparently, is similar to the systems of all levels.

These fundamental features of the modern natural science picture of the world and are determined in the main general contour, as well as the method of organizing a variety of scientific knowledge into something and consistent.

However, she has another feature that distinguishes it from previous options. She is recognition historical and consequently, principal incompleteness This, and any other scientific picture of the world. The one that is now generated both by the previous history and specific sociocultural features of our time. The development of society, a change in its value orientation, awareness of the importance of the study of unique natural systems, into which the person himself is included in the integral part, changes the strategy of scientific search, and the attitude of a person to the world.

But the universe is developing. Of course, the development of society and the universe is carried out in different temps. But their mutual imposition makes the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a final, completed, absolutely true scientific picture of the world practically impracticable.

So, we tried to note some of the fundamental features of the modern natural science picture of the world. This is just its overall contour, which makes it possible to start a detailed acquaintance with specific conceptual innovations. modern natural science. We will tell about them in the following chapters.

Questions for repetition

1. Why science occurs only in the VI-IV centuries. BC e., not before? What are the distinctive features of scientific knowledge?

2. What is the essence of the principle of falsification? How does he work?

3. Name the criteria for distinguishing the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge. What role does each of these levels play in scientific knowledge?

5. What is paradigm?

6. Describe the content of the natural scientific revolution end XIX. - The beginning of the XX centuries.

7. "There was this world to deep darkness. May the light be! And now Newton appeared. But Satan did not wait for revenge. Einstein came - and everything was as before. " (S. Ya. Marshak)

What feature of scientific knowledge is ironic by the author?

8. What is the essence of the principle of global evolutionism? How does it manifest?

9. Describe the basic ideas of synergetics. What is the novelty of a synergistic approach?

10. Name the principal features of the modern natural science picture of the world.

Literature

1. Knyazeva E.N., Kurdyumov S.P. The laws of evolution and self-organization of complex systems. - M.: Science, 1994.

2. Kuznetsov V.I., Idlis G.M., Gutina V.N. Natural science. - M.: Agar, 1996.

3. Kun T. Structure scientific revolutions. - M.: Progress 1975.

4. Lakatos I. Methodology of scientific research programs // Questions of philosophy. - 1995. - № 4.

5. Rovinsky R.E. Developing universe. - M., 1995.

6. Contemporary Philosophy of science. - M.: Logos, 1996.

7. Stepin V. S., Gorokhov V. G., Rosov M. A. Philosophy of science and technology. - M.: Gardaria, 1996.

8. Philosophy and the methodology of science. - M.: Aspect Press 1996.

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7.3.5. Noosphere. Teaching V. I. Vernadsky about the noosphere

A huge impact of a person on nature and large-scale consequences of his activities served as the basis for creating

the teachings of O. noosphere. The term "noosphere" (gr. EU5 -Rum) translated literally as the interactions of the mind. For the first time he introduced into scientific turnover in 1927. French scientist E. Lerua. Together with Teyar de Chardyn He considered the Nosphor as some perfect education, Outstander's thought shell, surrounding the Earth.

A number of scientists offer to use other concepts instead of the concept of "noosphere": "technosphere", "Anthroposphere", "Psychosphere", "Sociosphere" or use them as synonyms. Such an approach is very controversial, because between the listed concepts and the concept of "noosphere" there is a certain difference.

It should also be noted that the doctrine of the noosphere does not yet carry a complete canonical nature, which could be taken as a certain unconditional manual for action. The doctrine of the noosphere was formulated in the writings of one of its founders V. I. Vernadsky. In his work, you can meet different definitions and ideas about the noosphere, which also changed throughout the life of the scientist. Vernadsky began to develop this concept from the beginning of the 30s. After a detailed development of the teaching about the biosphere. Realizing the huge role and importance of a person in the life and transformation of the planet, V. I. Vernadsky consumes the concept of "noosphere" in different senses: 1) as a state of the planet, when a person becomes the largest transformative geological force; 2) as an area of \u200b\u200bactive manifestation of scientific thought; 3) as the main factor of restructuring and changing the biosphere.

Very important in the teachings of V. I. Vernadsky about the noosphere was that he first realized and tried to implement synthesis natural and Public Sciences When studying the problems of human global activity, actively rebuilding the environment. In his opinion, the noosphere is already qualitatively different, the highest stage of the biosphere associated with the fundamental transformation of not only nature, but also by the person himself. This is not just the scope of the human knowledge application at a high level of technology. For this, the concept of "technosphere" is sufficient. We are talking about such a stage in the life of humanity, when a person's transformative activity will be based on a strictly scientific and truly reasonable understanding of all the processes taking place and must be combined with the "interests of nature".

Currently under noospherethe scope of the interaction of man and nature is understood, within which reasonable human activity becomes the main defining factor in development. IN structure of noosphere It is possible to allocate humanity as components, public systems, Sovopul- " scientific knowledge, the amount of technology and technologies in unity with the biosphere. The harmonious relationship of all components of the structure is the basis for the sustainable existence and development of the noosphere.

Speaking about the evolutionary development of the world, its transition to the nosphere, the founders of this teaching diverged in the understanding of the essence of this process. Teyar de Charrad spoke about the gradual transition of the biosphere to the nosphere, i.e. "The scope of the mind, the evolution of which obeys the mind and the will of a person," by gradually smoothing the difficulties between man and nature.

V. I. Vernadsky we meet another approach. In his teaching about the biosphere, a living thing transforms the upper shell of the Earth. Gradually, human intervention is increasing, humanity becomes the main planetary geological-forming force. Therefore (the rod of the doctrine of Vernadsky about the noosphere) is directly responsible for the evolution of the planet. Understanding them of this thesis is necessary for its own survival. The echoliciness of the development will make the biosphere unsuitable for habitat people. In this regard, a person should poison its needs with the possibilities of the biosphere. The impact on it should be dispensed by the mind during the evolution of the biosphere and society. Gradually, the biosphere is converted to the nosphere, where its development is becoming a guided nature.

This is the difficult nature of the evolution of nature, the biosphere, as well as the complexity of the appearance of the nosphere, the determination of the role and place in it in it. V. I. Vernadsky has repeatedly stressed that humanity only enters into this state. And today, after a few decades after the death of a scientist, talking about the sustainable reasonable human activity (that is, that we have already achieved the state of the noosphere) there are no sufficient grounds. And so it will be at least until humanity decides global problems Planets, including environmental. On the noosphere is more correct

to speak, as an ideal, to whom a person should strive.

7.4. Relationship of space and wildlife

Due to the relationship of all existing space, it has an active impact on the most different life processes on Earth.

V. I. Vernadsky, speaking of factors affecting the development of the biosphere, indicated among others and cosmic influence. So, he emphasized that without cosmic luminaries, in particular without the sun, life on earth could not exist. Live organisms transform cosmic radiation in terrestrial energy (thermal, electrical, chemical, mechanical) across the existence of the biosphere.

On the significant role Space in the appearance of life on Earth pointed the Swedish scientist. Nobel laureate S. Arrhenius.In his opinion, the drift of life on the Earth from the space was possible in the form of bacteria due to cosmic dust and energy. I did not exclude the possibility of the appearance of life on Earth from Space and V. I. Vernadsky.

The effect of space on the processes occurring on Earth (for example, the moon on marine rings and flows, solar eclipses) people were noticed in antiquity. However, many centuries, the connection of space with Earth has been reflected more often at the level of scientific hypotheses and guesses or in general outside of science. In many ways, this was due to the limited capabilities of a person, a scientific base and an inversion. IN XX The centuries of knowledge about the effect of space on Earth were significantly replenished. And this is the merit and Russian scientists, first of all representatives russian Cosmism - A. L. Chizhevsky, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, L. N. Gumileva, V. I. Vernadsky, etc.

Understand, evaluate and reveal the scale of the influence of space, and above all the sun, on earth life And its manifestations were in many ways A. L. Chizhevsky. It is evidenced by the names of his works: "Physical factors of the historical process", "earth echo of solar storms", etc.

Scientists have long paid attention to the manifestations of the activity of the Sun (spots, torches on its surface, protuberances). This activity in turn turned out to be associated with electromagnetic and other fluctuations in world space. A. L. Chizhevsky, conducting numerous scientific research on astronomy, biology and history, concluded about the very significant influence of the Sun and its activity on biological and social processes on Earth ("physical factors of the historical process").

In 1915, 18-year-old A. L. Chizhevsky, selflessly studied astronomy, chemistry and physics, drew attention to the synchronicity of the formation of solar spots and on the simultaneous activation of hostilities at the fronts of the First World War. The accumulated and generalized statistical material allowed him to make this study scientific and convincing.

The meaning of his concept based on the rich actual material was proof of the existence of cosmic rhythms and the dependence of biological and public life on Earth from the cosmos pulse. K. E. Tsiolkovsky so assessed the work of his colleague: "A young scientist is trying to discover the functional dependence between the behavior of humanity and fluctuations in the activities of the Sun, and by calculating the rhythm, cycles and periods of these changes and fluctuations, thus creating a new sphere of human knowledge. All these broad generalizations and bold thoughts are expressed by Chizhevsky for the first time, which gives them greater value and excites interest. This work is an example of a merger of various sciences together on the monistic soil of physico-mathematical analysis "1.

Only after many years expressed A, L. Chizhevsky thoughts and conclusions about the effect of the Sun on earth processes were confirmed in practice. Numerous observations showed an indisputable dependence of mass surges of neuropsychic and cardiovascular diseases in humans with periodic cycles of the sun activity. Forecasts of so-called "adverse days" for health - the usual thing today.

Interesting the thought of Chizhevsky that magnetic perturbations in the sun by the power of the unity of the cosmos can seriously affect the problem of health of state leaders. Indeed, at the head of most of the governments of many countries there are elderly people. What is happening on Earth and in space rhythms, of course, affect their health and well-being. This is especially dangerous in the conditions of totalitarian, dictatorial regimes. And if the head of state is amoral or mentally flawed personality, their pathological reactions to cosmic perturbations can lead to unpredictable and tragic consequences as for the peoples of their countries and all mankind in conditions where many countries have powerful arms of destruction.

A special place is approved by Chizhevsky that the Sun significantly affects not only biological, but also social processes on Earth. Social conflicts (wars, riots, revolution), by conviction A. L. Chizhevsky, are largely predetermined by the behavior and activity of our luminaries. According to its calculations, during minimal solar activity there is a minimum of massive social manifestations in society (approximately 5%). During the Sun activity peak, their number reaches 60%.

Many ideas of A. L. Chizhevsky found their use in the field of space and biological sciences. They confirm the inseparable unity of man and space, indicate their close mutual influence.

Very original were the cosmic ideas of the first representative of Russian Cosmism N. F. Fedorova. He pecked high hopes for the future development of science. It was she who, according to N. F. Fedorov, will help a person to extend his life, and in the future to make immortal. The resettlement of people to other planets due to the large cluster will become the necessary reality. Space for Fedorov is an active field of human activity. In the middle of the XIX century. He offered his own variant of moving people in outer space. According to the thinker, for this it will be necessary to master the electromagnetic energy of the globe, which will allow to regulate its movement in the world space and will turn the land into the spacecraft ("land") for flights into space. IN

K. E. Tsiolkovsky. He also owns a number of original philosophical ideas. Life, in Tsiolkovsky, eternal. "After every death, one and the same - scattering ... We always lived and always live, but every time in a new form and, of course, without memory of the past ... a piece of matter is subject to a countless row of lives, although separated by tremendous Time intervals ... "1. In this thinker is very close to the Hindu teachings on the resettlement of souls, as well as to democritus.

1 Tsiolkovsky k.e.

Thus, the Tsiolkovsky represents the technology of "Humanitarian Aid". "The Perfect World" takes all the concerns. On other, lower on the development of the planets, they are supported and encouraged "only good." "All evasion to evil or suffering is carefully correct. What way? Yes, by selecting: bad, or left to bad, leaving without offspring ... The power of perfect penetrates all the planets, all possible places of life and everywhere. These places are settled by their own mature genus. Is this not like the gardener destroys all unsuitable plants on his land and leaves only the best vegetables! If the intervention does not help, and nothing but suffering is not foreseen, then the whole living world is painlessly destroyed ... "1.

\\ Tsiolkovsky K.E. Decree. op. - P. 378-379.

the perspective, according to Fedorov's plans, a person will unite all the worlds and become a "planet model." This is especially closely manifested by the unity of man and space.

Ideas N. F. Fedorova on the resettlement of people to other planets developed a brilliant scientist in the field of rocket education K. E. Tsiolkovsky. He also owns a number of original philosophical ideas. Life, in Tsiolkovsky, eternal. "After every death, one and the same - scattering ... We all lived and always live, but every time in a new form and, of course, without memory of the past ... a piece of matter is subject to a countless row of lives, although Time intervals ... "1. In this thinker is very close to the Hindu teachings on the resettlement of souls, as well as to democritus.

Based on the dialectical idea about the universal life, everywhere and always existing through the moving and forever living atoms, Tsiolkovsky tried to build a holistic framework of "Space Philosophy".

The scientist believed that life and mind on earth were not the only one in the universe. True, as evidence, he used only the statement that the Universe is infinite, and considered it quite sufficient. Otherwise, "whatever meaning of the Universe, if it were not filled with an organic, intelligent, felt world?". Based on the comparative youth of the Earth, they are concluded that the other "older planets life is much more perfect" 2. Moreover, it actively affects other levels of life, including earthly.

In its philosophical ethics, Tsiolkovsky is purely rationalized and consistent. Earring in Absolut the idea of \u200b\u200bconstant improvement of matter, Tsiolkovsky sees this process as follows. Having borders space inhabited by reasonable beings of various levels of development. There are planets, which for the development of the mind and the power reached the highest degree and overtook others. These "perfect" planets, having passed all the flour of evolution and knowing their sad passed and former imperfection, possess

" Tsiolkovsky k.e. Dreams of land and sky. - Tula: Tits. kn. Publishing house, 1986. -s. 380-381.

2 Tsiolkovsky K.E. Decree. op. - P. 378-379.

by morally regulate life on other, primitive planets, to relieve their population from the Military Development.

Thus, the Tsiolkovsky represents the technology of "Humanitarian Aid". "The Perfect World" takes all the concerns. On other, lower reducing planets them Supported and encouraged "only good." "All evasion to evil or suffering is carefully correct. What way? Yes, by selecting: bad, or left to bad, leaving without offspring ... The power of perfect penetrates all the planets, all possible places of life and everywhere. These places are settled by their own mature genus. Is this not like the gardener destroys all unsuitable plants on his land and leaves only the best vegetables! If the intervention does not help, and nothing but suffering is not foreseen, then the whole living world is painlessly destroyed ... "1.

K. E. Tsiolkovsky The most deeply from contemporaries studied and lit philosophical problems Space development. He believed that the land in the universe belongs to a special role. The land relates to later planets, "Supplementing Hope." Only a small number of such planets will be given the right to independent development and torment, including the Earth.

In the course of evolution, over time, the Union of All Reasonable Space Site will be formed. At first - in the form of a union inhabiting the next sun, then the Union Union and so on, to infinity, because the universe itself is infinite.

The moral, the Space Task of the Earth is to contribute to the improvement of space. To justify its high purpose in improving the world, earthlings can only leaving the Earth and going into space. Therefore, Tsiolkovsky sees his personal task in the help of earthlings on organizing relocation to other planets and their resettlement throughout the universe. He emphasized that the essence of his cosmic philosophy is "in the relocation from the Earth and in the settlement of space." That is why the invention of rockets for Tsiolkovsky was by no means an end in itself (as some believes, seeing the rocket student's scientist in it), and the method of penetration into the depths of space.

1 Tsiolkovsky k.e. Decree. op. - P. 378-379.

The scientist believed that many millions of years gradually improve the nature of man and its public organization. In the course of evolution human body Conduting significant changes that will turn into a person essentially into a reasonable "animal plant", artificially processing solar energy. Thus, a full spacious will be achieved for his will and independence on the habitat. In the end, humanity will be able to exploit all the olomolar space and solar energy. And over time, the earthly population will be dividated throughout the incoming space.

The ideas of K. E. Tsiolkovsky on the unity of various worlds of space, its constant improvement, including the person himself, about the exit of humanity into space to enter into an important idea and humanistic meaning.

Today there are also practical problems of human influence on space. So, in connection with regular space flights there is a possibility of unintentional drift into space, in particular to other planets, living organisms. A number of earth bacteria are able to withstand the most extreme temperature, radiation and other conditions of existence. The temperature amplitude of the existence in some types of unicellular reaches 600 degrees. How they behave in a different unearthly medium - it is impossible to predict.

Currently, a person begins to actively use space to solve specific technological tasks, whether it is growing rare crystals, welding and other works. And for a long time they received recognition of space satellites as a means of collecting and transmitting a variety of information.

7.5. Contradictions in the system: nature-biosphere

The relationship between nature and society cannot be considered outside the contradictions, inevitably emerging and existing between them. The history of the joint existence of man and nature is the unity of two trends.

First, with the development of society and its productive forces constantly and rapidly expands the domination of a person over nature. Today it is manifested in a planetary scale. Secondly, contradictions, disharmony between man and nature are constantly deepened.

Nature, despite all the countless varieties of its components, there is a single integer. That is why the impact of a person on individual parts of the externally submissive and peaceful nature is influenced at the same time, and regardless of the will of people, and its other components. The results of the response are often unpredictable, they are poorly predicted. A person opens the land, helping the growth of plants useful to him, but due to errors in agriculture, a fertile layer was washed off. The deforestation of forests under the agricultural damage deprives the soil of sufficient amount of moisture, and as a result of the field, it is soon made fruitless. The destruction of predators reduces the resistance of herbivores and worsens their gene pool. A similar "black list" of the local impacts of a person and a response of nature can continue infinitely.

Ignoring a man of a holistic dialectic nature of nature leads to negative consequences for both of it and society. F. Engels wrote about it at one time: "We will not, however, too dedicated by our victories over nature. For each such victory, she takes us. Each of these victories is true, first of all, the consequences for which we expected, but in the second and third item completely different, unforeseen consequences, which very often destroy the consequences of the first "1.

Spaces in the total level of culture, ignoring generations of people of the patterns and features of the living world, unfortunately, sad reality and today. Gorky testimony how hard mankind does not want to learn from their own mistakes, they can serve as the rivers saline after the cutting of forests, salted as a result of illiterate irrigation and become unsuitable for farming fields, dried sea (Aral), etc.

Negative both for nature and the society becomes unceremonious intervention of a person in the surrounding

1 Marx K., Engels F. Ot. T. 20. - P. 495.

wednesday today, for the consequences of him because high level The development of productive forces often carry the ear global nature and generate global environmental problems.

The term "ecology", first used by a German biologist E. Geckel In 1866, denotes science about the relationship of living organisms with environmental. The scientist believed that the new science would deal only with the relationship between animals and plants with their habitat. However, today about the problems of ecology (this term is firmly entered into our lives in the 70s. XX century), we actually mean social ecology -science learning the problems of interaction between society and the environment.

Today, the ecological situation in the world can be characterized as close to critical. The first United Nations Environmental Conference in 1972 officially stated the presence of the global environmental crisis of the entire biosphere on Earth. Today there are no longer local (regional), but global (worldwide) ecological problems:

thousands of plants and animals are destroyed and continued; largely exterminated forest cover; Frequently reduced by the existing mineral supply; The world ocean is not only depleted as a result of the destruction of living organisms, but also ceases to be a regulator of natural processes; The atmosphere in many places is polluted to maximum permissible norms, clean air becomes a deficit; There is not a single square meter of the surface on Earth, wherever the elements were not artificially created by a person.

With the beginning of space flights, the problems of ecology moved to open outer space. Rezatized waste from human space activity accumulates in space, which is also becoming an increasingly acute problem. Even on the moon, American astronauts discovered numerous debris and remnants from the artificial satellites of the Earth sent there in their time by humanity. You can already talk about the problem of cosmic ecologia.

Another unknown earlier problem - ecology and human health. Pollution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and soil

led to growth and change in the structure of human diseases. There are new diseases brought by civilization: allergic, radial, toxic. Genetic changes occur in the body. In connection with the extremely unfavorable environmental situation in large industrial cities, the number of diseases of the upper respiratory tract has increased many times. Ultrahigh rhythm of life and info overloads led to the fact that the curve of cardiovascular, neuropsychic, oncological diseases Made a sharp jump up.

It becomes quite obvious the harm of the consumer attitude of a person to nature only as the object of obtaining certain wealth and goods. For humanity today, there is a vital change in the attitude towards nature and ultimately to itself.

What are the same ways to solve environmental problems ^. First of all, go from the consumer, technocratic approach to the nature of the search harmony with her. For this, in particular, a number of targeted measures are needed. ecologization of production: The use of environmentalizing technologies and industries, mandatory environmental examination of new projects, and ideally the creation of waste-free technologies of a closed cycle, harmless for both nature and human health. Inexplicable, hard control of food production, which is already carried out in many civilized countries.

In addition, it is necessary to constantly care about maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between nature and man. A person should not only take from nature, but also to give her (planting forests, fishing, organizing national parks, reserves, etc.).

However, the tangible effect of listed and other measures can only bring the efforts of all countries to save nature. The first attempt of such an international association was made at the beginning of our century. In November 1913, the first international meeting was gathered in Switzerland with the participation of representatives of the 18th world's largest states. Now the interstate forms of cooperation go to a qualitatively new level. Enclosed international Concepts on environmental protection

environment, various joint developments and programs are carried out. Active the activities of Green (public environmental protection organizations - Greenpeace). The ecological intermenimal of a green cross and a green crescent is currently developing a program to solve the problem of "ozone holes" in the atmosphere of the Earth. However, it should be recognized that due to the very different level of socio-political development of the worlds of the world, international cooperation in the environmental sphere is still quite far from the desired and necessary level.

Another measure aimed at improving human and nature relationships is reasonable self-limitation In expenditure natural resourcesEspecially energy sources that have the most important importance for humanity. Calculations of international experts show that if we proceed from a modern level of consumption, then coal reserves are enough for 430 years, oil - for 35 years, natural Gas - by 50. Term, especially in oil reserves, not so big. In this regard, reasonable structural changes in the global energy balance towards expanding the use of atomic energy, as well as the search for new, efficient, safe and as harmless to the nature of energy sources.

Another important direction of solving an environmental problem is the formation in society environmental consciousness Understanding nature as another creature, over which cannot be maintained without prejudice to itself. Environmental education and education in society should be put on the state level and are conducted from early childhood.

With great difficulty, making painful mistakes, humanity is gradually increasingly becoming aware of the need to move from consumer attitudes towards the nature of harmony with her.

Questions for repetition

1. What is the difference between the concepts: "Live substance", "biosphere", "biocenosis", "biogeocenosis"?

2. What is the nature of the evolution and development of the biosphere? What is the essence of the teaching V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the noosphere?

3. What is the essence of the concepts of geographic determinism? What is rational in them, and what is exaggerated?

4. What is the relationship of concepts: "Nature", "Geographical Wednesday", "Environment"?

5. What is a technosphere? What is its role in the evolution of the biosphere?

6. What is expressed by the mutual influence of space and land? What was characteristic of the representatives of Russian Cosmism in these relationships?

7. What is the increasing relationship between human and nature relationships?

« Physics - Grade 10 »

Does the first thermodynamic law allow spontaneous heat transition from the less heated body to the more heated?
Are there such processes in nature?

We have already noted that the first law of thermodynamics is a special case of the law of energy conservation.

The energy conservation law claims that the amount of energy in any transformations remains unchanged. Meanwhile, many processes that are fully allowed from the point of view of the law of conservation of energy will never proceed in reality.

For example, from the point of view of the first law of thermodynamics in an isolated system, a heat transition from a less heated body is possible to more heated if the amount of heat obtained by a hot body is exactly equal to the amount of heat, given by the cold body. At the same time, our experience suggests that it is impossible.

The first law of thermodynamics does not indicate the direction of processes.

The second law of thermophysigns.

The second law of thermodynamics indicates the direction of possible energy transformations, i.e. the direction of processes, and thereby expresses the irreversibility of processes in nature. This law was set by directly generalizing experienced facts.

There are several formulations of the second law, which, despite the external difference, express, in essence, the same thing and therefore equal.

German scientist R. Clausius (1822-1888) formulated this law like this:

It is impossible to translate heat from a colder system to more hot in the absence of other simultaneous changes in both systems or in surrounding bodies.

Here is the experienced fact of a certain direction of heat transfer: heat itself turns always from hot bodies to cold. True, in refrigeration installations carried out heat transfer from the cold body to a more warm, but this transmission is associated with other changes in the surrounding bodies: cooling is achieved by work.

The importance of this law is that it can be brought out of the irreversibility of not only the heat transfer process, but also other processes in nature.

Consider an example. The oscillations of the pendulum, derived from the equilibrium position, fade (Fig. 13.12) 1, 2, 3, 4 - sequential position of the pendulum at maximum deviations from the equilibrium position). Due to the work of the friction force, the mechanical energy of the pendulum decreases, and the temperature of the pendulum and the ambient air (and therefore their internal energy) is slightly rising.

You can again increase the swing of the pendulum oscillations, pushing it with your hand. But this increase occurs not by itself, but it becomes possible as a result of a more complex process, including the movement of the hand.

Mechanical energy spontaneously passes into the inner, but not vice versa. At the same time, the energy of an ordered body movement as a whole turns into the energy of an unordered thermal motion of the components of its molecules.

Another example is the diffusion process. Opening a bubble with spirits, we will quickly feel the smell of perfume. The aromatic molecules due to thermal motion penetrate the space between air molecules. It is difficult to imagine that they all come together again in the bubble.

The number of such examples can be increased almost unlimited. All of them say that the processes in nature have a certain orientation, in no way reflected in the first law of thermodynamics.

All macroscopic processes in nature occur only in one particular direction.

In the opposite direction, they cannot spontaneously pass. All processes are irreversible.

Previously, when considering processes, we assumed that they are reversible.

The reversible process is a process that can be carried out in direct and reverse directions through the same intermediate states unchanged in surrounding bodies.

The reversible process should proceed very slowly so that each intermediate state is equilibrium.

Equilibrium condition - This is a condition at which the temperature and pressure in all points of the system are the same.

Consequently that the system came to an equilibrium state, time is necessary.

When studying isoprocesses, we assumed that the transition from the initial state to the final passes through equilibrium states, and was considered isothermal, isobaric and isochhore processes reversible.

There are no ideal reversible processes in nature, but real processes can be considered with a certain degree of accuracy as reversible, which is very important for theory.

The bright illustration of the irreversibility of phenomena in nature is the viewing of a movie in the opposite direction.
For example, jump into the water will look like this. Calm water in the pool begins to spill, legs appear, rapidly moving up, and then the whole diver. The surface of the water quickly calms down. Gradually, the speed of the diver decreases, and now he is already calmly on the tower.

Such a process as the ascension of the diver on the tower from water does not contradict either the law of conservation of energy, nor the laws of mechanics, nor any laws, except for the Second Law of the Termodynamics.

• · Standula Clausius: "The process is impossible, the only result of which would be heat transfer from a colder body to more hot" (Such a process is called clausius process).
• · Tomson's postulate (Kelvin): "There is no circular process, the only result of which would be the production of work due to the cooling of the heat reservoir" (Such a process is called thomson process).

Equivalence of these wording is easy to show. In fact, let's say that the postulate of Clausius is incorrect, that is, there is a process, the only result of which would be heat transfer from a colder body to more hot. Then we take two bodies with different temperatures (heater and refrigerator) and carry out several cycular thermal machines, taking warmth from the heater, giving the refrigerator and after this work

After that, we use the Clausius process and refund heat from the refrigerator to the heater. As a result, it turns out that we have done work only at the expense of the heat of heat from the heater, that is, Tomson's postulate is also incorrect.

On the other hand, suppose that Thomson's postulate is incorrect. Then you can take away part of the heat from a colder body and turn into mechanical work. This work can be turned into heat, for example, by friction, heating is a hotter body. So, from the wrongness of the postulate Thomson follows the infidelity of the postulate of Clausius.

Thus, the postulates of Clausius and Thomson are equivalent.

Another wording of the second start of thermodynamics is based on the concept of entropy:

· "The entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease" (the law of restoration of entropy).

This formulation is based on the presentation of entropy as a function of the state of the system, which should also be postulated.

The second principle of thermodynamics in the axiomatic formulation of Rudolf Julius Clausius (R. J. Clausius, 1865) has the following form:

For any quasi-equilibrium thermodynamic system there is a unambiguous thermodynamic function

called entropy, such that its full differential

In a state with maximum entropy, macroscopic irreversible processes (and the heat transfer process is always irreversible due to the Clausius postulate) are impossible.

Restrictions on the withdrawal of the formula for the differential of entropy given by Clausius are to assume the ideality of the gas whose properties lead to the existence of an integrating multiplier. This disadvantage was eliminated by Karateodory in the work "On the foundations of thermodynamics" (1909). Karateodori considered a set of states achievable adiabatic path (that is, without heat exchange with the environment). The equation describing such a plurality of these states in differential form is a pfaff form. Using known from the analysis of the integrability of Pfaff forms, Karateodori came to the next wording of the Second Law:

· In the neighborhood of any state of the system, there are states that are not achievable as adiabatic.

This setting does not limit the systems submitting to the second law of thermodynamics, only by perfect gases and bodies capable of performing a closed cycle when interacting with them. The physical meaning of the axiom of Karateodori repeats the wording of Clausius.

The second law is associated with the concept of entropy, which is a measure of chaos (or a measure of order).The second law of thermodynamics states that for the universe as a whole entropy increases.

There are two classic definitions of the Second Law of Thermodynamics:

· Kelvin and Planck

There is no cyclic process that retrieves the amount of heat from the tank at a certain temperature and fully turns this heat into operation. (It is impossible to build a periodically operating machine that does not produce anything else, except for lifting the cargo and cooling the heat reservoir)

· Clausius

There is no process, the only result of which is the transmission of the amount of heat from the less heated body to the more heated. (Circular process is impossible, the only result of which would be the production of work due to the cooling of the thermal reservoir)

Both definitions of the second law of thermodynamics are based on the first law of thermodynamics, arguing that energy decreases.

\u003e The second law of thermodynamics

Formulation the Second Law of Thermodynamics simple words: The process of heat exchange, entropy and temperature, communication with the first law of thermodynamics, formula.

According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat exchange is carried out spontaneously from higher to low temperatures.

Task learning

• Compare irreversibility between the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

Major points

• Many phenomena allowed in the first law are not found in reality.
• Most processes occur spontaneously in one direction. The second law is associated with the direction.
• There is no way to transport heat from the cold to the heated body.

Terms

• Entropy - measure of the prevalence of uniform energy over the system.
• The first law of thermodynamics is an energy savings in thermodynamic systems (ΔU \u003d Q - W).

Irreversibility

We study the wording of the second law of thermodynamics with simple words. The second law of thermodynamics is associated with the direction relating to spontaneous processes. Most of them occur spontaneously and exclusively in one direction (they are irreversible). Irreversibility is often found in everyday life (broken vase). Such a process relies on the path. If it passes only in one direction, then you can not return it back.

For example, heat transfer comes from a more heated body to the cool. Cold body when contacting with hot never reduce its temperature. Moreover, the kinetic energy can become thermal, but not the opposite. It can also be considered on an example of an expansion of a gas tightening entered into an angle of a vacuum chamber. Gas expands, trying to fill the space, but it will never hold on exclusively in the corner.

(a) - heat exchange is carried out spontaneously from hot to the cool, and not vice versa. (b) - Machine brakes transform kinetic energy to heat transfer. (c) - a gas flash, launched into a vacuum chamber, quickly expands to evenly fill out all the space. Random movement of molecules will never force him to concentrate in a single corner

The second law of thermodynamics

If there are processes that cannot be reversed, then there is a law imposed on this ban. Interestingly, the first law admits a similar one, but no process disrupts energy conservation. The main law is the second. He reveals an idea of \u200b\u200bnature and some allegations are radically affecting many important questions.

According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat exchange is carried out spontaneously from the bodies with higher temperature indicators to low. But never opposite.

The law also states that none of the processes can result from getting heat transfer from a cold body to hot.

We were convinced of a number of examples that work is done when the warmth moves from the hot body (heater) to the cold (refrigerator), and the refrigerator gets less heat than the heater gives. The internal energy of the heater decreases not only because it transmits the warmth of the refrigerator, but also because work is performed.

Find out under what conditions does the reverse process take place - the transfer of heat from the cold body to hot?

An example of this kind can serve refrigeration machines used in the food industry (for the manufacture of ice cream, for storing meat, etc.). The compressor refrigeration device diagram is the return device of the steamile installation.

It is shown in Fig. 530. The working substance in the refrigeration machine usually serves ammonia (sometimes carbon dioxide, sulfuric anhydride or any of halogen homes, which received the special name "Freons"). Compressor 1 pumps ammonia pairs under pressure 12 in the serpentine 2 (it corresponds to the condenser). In compression, the ammonia pair is heated, and they are cooled in a tank 3 running water. Here, ammonia pairs are addressed to the liquid. From the serpentine 2 ammonia through the valve 4 enters another serpentine 5 (evaporator), where the pressure is about 3 atm.

When passing through the valve, part of ammonia evaporates and the temperature decreases to -10. From the evaporator ammonia is sucking with a compressor. After evaporated, ammonia borrows the warmth necessary for evaporation, from the surrounding evaporator of the salt solution (brine). As a result, the brine is cooled to about -8 ° C. Thus, the brine plays the role of a cold body that gives heat hotter (flowing water in the tank 3). The jet of the cooled brine is directed through the pipes into the cooled room. Artificial ice is obtained by immersing metal boxes filled with clean water.

In addition to compressor refrigeration machines, absorption refrigeration machines are used for household purposes, where the compression of the working gas is achieved not by the compressor, but by absorption (absorption, dissolution) in a suitable substance. Thus, in the household refrigerator (Fig. 531), a strong aqueous solution of ammonia () is heated by an electric current in the generator 1 and emits ammonia gas, the pressure of which reaches 20 atm. Ammonia gaseous after drying (in the dryer, not shown in the diagram) condenses in the condenser 2. Liquefied ammonia enters the evaporator 3, where it turns into gas again, borrowing a significant amount of heat from the evaporator. Ammonia gaseous ammonia is absorbed (dissolved in water) in absorber 4, where, thus, a strong ammonia solution is formed again, which flows into a generator 1, displacing from there (after gas release) solution in absorber. This is how a continuous cycle is carried out, and the evaporator is placed inside the cooled volume (the cabinet) (strongly cooled during the evaporation of ammonia), and all other parts are located outside the cabinet.

Fig. 530. Scheme of the compressor refrigeration machine

The question arises, why in the condenser gaseous ammonia liquefies, and in the evaporator it evaporates, although the temperature of the evaporator is lower than the temperature of the condenser? This is achieved due to the fact that the entire system is filled with hydrogen at a pressure of about 20 atm. When the generator is heated, the ammonia gaseous ammonia is released from a boiling solution, and its pressure reaches approximately 20 atm. Ammonia displaces hydrogen from the top of the generator and the condenser in the evaporator and absorber. Thus, ammonia in the capacitor is under its own high pressure and therefore is liquefied at a temperature close to room, in the evaporator, liquid ammonia falls under low partial pressure, and hydrogen in the evaporator provides the desired total pressure equal to pressure in the condenser and other parts of the system .

Fig. 531. Diagram of the device of the absorption refrigerator machine

A mixture of hydrogen and gaseous ammonia from the evaporator moves into the absorber, where the ammonia is dissolved in water, which causes the heating of the solution, and the hydrogen passes through the warm solution and, heating there, passes through convection in a cold evaporator. His new servings evaporates in the same ammonia in the evaporator, causing further cooling of the evaporator. The advantage of this design consists in the absence of moving mechanical parts. The circulation of ammonia solution (between 1 and 4) and the circulation of hydrogen (between 4 and 3) is carried out due to the density difference caused by the difference in temperature (a solution of 1 hot, than in 4, and hydrogen and 4 warmer than in 3).